Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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In destination countries, migrant smugglers from Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, are largely depicted as criminals with some accused of abuse and starving their captives by the media, politicians and academia (Chowdhury, 2015; Shepherd, 2014; UNHCR, IOM and UNODC, 2015). This depiction is echoed by those in transit countries, and highlighted in graphic detail by the Rohingya from Bangladesh whose mass graves were found in Thailand (Barry, 2015). Yet, in source countries, those involved in the smuggling process are not necessarily considered exploitative, but sometimes considered as heroes, helping people escape their difficult situations (Raghavan and Jayasuriya, 2016a, 2016b). Many smugglers rely on their reputations, and so successful ventures generate more business for them. The apparent contradiction in conceptualizations of smugglers could in part be due to where smugglers (or those in the smuggling business) are interviewed. Initially, in source countries – presumably those respondents who are planning on undertaking irregular migration with the assistance of a migrant smuggler have not experienced the hardships in transit – may not fully appreciate the risks of transit, or may have been informed by their networks that the risks are worth taking. If these people are engaging migrant smugglers, they may do so with an underlying level of trust, and hence have positive views towards smugglers. A smuggler may also be part of a chain of smugglers, and actually be more of recruiter or facilitator rather than the main smuggler (Raghavan and Jayasuriya, 2016a, 2016b). Conversely, those who have undertaken the journey and experienced hardships may have a different view of migrant smugglers. This conceptualization may also be different depending on the source country in question; Rohingya who languish in camps in Thailand before their family members can buy their freedom may or may not face different levels and types of abuse at the hands of smugglers (and traffickers) compared with Sri Lankans who entered Australia irregularly in 2011 and 2012. Such examples often blur the difference between trafficking and migrant smuggling. In source and destination countries, irregular migrants who are seeking asylum have been conceptualized by some as opportunistic, queue jumpers and driven by economic factors, while others present them as legitimate sufferers of human rights abuse and persecution (Howie, 2014). For governments in source countries protecting their human rights records and reputation, and governments in destination countries trying to limit the flows of irregular asylum seekers, the narrative seems to be the former. For human rights advocates, family members of asylum seekers and some sections of the asylum seeker’s communities, the latter conceptualization may be more accurate. Academia, to an extent, exists in the middle; showing irregular migrants may have both economic and protection reasons for migration (Dimitriadi, 2013; European Commission, Directorate 188 8. South Asia
General for Migration and Home Affairs, 2009; Jayasuriya and McAuliffe, 2014; McAuliffe, 2013; UNODC, 2013), with some research showing that protection factors are more prominent than economic factors among refugees who arrived irregularly (McAuliffe, 2013). All South Asian countries have been parties to at least one important international legal instrument related to migration, Bhutan being the exception. The 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime has been widely supported (see Table 8.1). Only India is party to the 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants and the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, so is Afghanistan to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Afghanistan and Sri Lanka are the only countries from the region supporting the 1990 UN Migrant Workers Convention. Table 8.1: Country’s signatory status to relevant international migration instruments Bangladesh India Pakistan Sri Lanka 1951 Refugees Convention and 1967 Protocol 1 1974 SOLAS Convention 2 1982 1980 1985 1983 1978 SOLAS Protocol 2 1986 1985 1990 UN Migrant Workers Convention 1 2011 1996 2000 Convention against Transnational 2011 2011 2010 2006 Organized Crime 3 2000 Anti-smuggling Protocol 1 2011 2000 Anti-trafficking Protocol 1 2011 Sources: (1) United Nations migration country profiles. Available from http://esa.un.org/ MigGMGProfiles/indicators/files (accessed 14 April 2016). (2) Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Available from https://imo.amsa.gov.au/public/ parties/solas74.html, https://imo.amsa.gov.au/public/parties/solas78protocol.html (accessed 14 April 2016). (3) United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. UN Treaty Collection. Available from https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails. aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12&chapter=18&clang=_en (accessed 14 April 2016). This chapter focuses on the South Asian countries of Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka, as well as Pakistan. It presents an overview of migrant smuggling in the region, explains the types of smugglers, and discusses the costs associated with migrant smuggling. Available data and existing research related to migrant smuggling is then reviewed before providing concluding remarks. Migrant Smuggling Data and Research: A global review of the emerging evidence base 189
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research
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on migrant smuggling and irregular
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Trafficking (UN.GIFT) and a member
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Marie McAuliffe is the newly appoin
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Ramesh Sunman is a research officer
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1 REPORT OVERVIEW Marie McAuliffe a
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disrupt the activities of migrant s
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Financial motives are central to th
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Complexities of smuggling Part of t
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physical and mental harm, and somet
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Probably the best data available re
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Finally, it could be argued that co
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(chapter 2), grey literature “ref
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on aspects of migrant smuggling, in
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References commonplace than is read
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International Organization for Migr
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Regional Mixed Migration Secretaria
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Introduction 2 WEST AND CENTRAL AFR
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Map 2.1: Map of West and Central Af
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distances in sparsely populated are
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down by nationality. 6 These entrie
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Figure 2.1: Asylum applications lau
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qualitative data often contain deta
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Investigative journalism A substant
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and terrorism are mentioned in the
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Ethnographic research and policy re
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Conclusion and ways forward Migrati
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Altai Consulting 2013 Mixed Migrati
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2007b Unauthorized migration from A
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Global Initiative Against Transnati
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Marie, C.-V. 2004 Preventing Illega
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Triulzi, A. 2013 “Like a plate of
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Table 3.1: Signatories of the Proto
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smuggling, most of which focus on S
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Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djib
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Smuggler services and networks The
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not view themselves as victims of a
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to air travel. Although travelling
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identified along the routes to the
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collecting data on irregular migrat
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Remaining data available online inc
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informant interviews and in-depth i
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• Risk of abduction and trafficki
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human trafficking, but also inform
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De Regt, M. and M. Tafesse 2015 Dep
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2013a Health Vulnerabilities Study
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United Nations High Commissioner fo
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Mediterranean routes passing throug
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The dynamics of smuggling As seen i
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Key locations There is much to sugg
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smuggler once in the destination co
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increased between 2014 and 2015, wh
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Figure 4.2: Irregular arrivals on t
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In terms of research focused on smu
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perspective of the migration dynami
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Global Initiative against Transnati
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Reitano, T., L. Adal and M. Shaw 20
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of Unauthorized Entry and Residence
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(c) Eastern Mediterranean route, fr
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nationals of UNSC resolution 1244-a
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Figure 5.1: Smuggling routes into a
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Travel by air through falsified doc
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Czech Republic, for instance, do no
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Next to the lack of comparable and
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of Austria (FPG), n.d.; Federal Act
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smuggling within the wider frame of
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critique, as the overall number rem
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Inadequate attention is currently a
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Bilger, V., M. Hoffmann and M. Jand
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Europol 2011 Illegal immigrant smug
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Harding, L. (and agencies) 2015 Hun
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Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) 20
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Legislation 2004 Federal Aliens Law
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Page 158 and 159: Figure 6.1: Migrant routes in the M
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Page 172 and 173: Kirişçi, K. 2003 The Question of
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Page 180 and 181: Map 7.1: Afghan migration flows to
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Page 204 and 205: Overview of migrant smuggling in th
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Page 248 and 249: Barron, L. and W. Lone 2015 Myanmar
Page 250 and 251: MacKinnon, I. 2008 54 Burmese migra
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United Nations Office of Drugs and
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A.T. Gallagher (2015), “Exploitat
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10 NORTH-EAST ASIA Jiyoung Song Int
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The following sections provide the
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Figure 10:1: Destination countries
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a three-tiered structure: (a) “bi
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Problems with accessibility Given t
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smugglers as criminals have evolved
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2003; Li, 2012; Silverstone, 2011).
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not to be dominant in the region. N
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Human Rights Watch 2002 The Invisib
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Lohman, D. 1996 North Korea: A Pote
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n.d. Voluntary Reporting System on
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庄国土 1997 对近 20 年来
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李琦 . 2011 吉林中朝边
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travel documents from friends and f
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and 2011). This chapter provides an
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journalistic reports suggest many o
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Some Cuban nationals and residents
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north, but also within the continen
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migration flows. In terms of offici
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esearch has also emerged on the top
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the region in a fashion that may al
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migratory corridor. Brigden (2015)
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security mechanisms, efforts to eng
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Casillas, R. 2007 Una Vida Discreta
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Evans, M. and J. Franzblau (eds.) 2
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Jackson, J. 2015 Crossing the Darie
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Moreno Mena, J.A. and L. Niño Cont
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Robinson, B. 2010 Smuggled Masses:
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2013 Children on the Run: Unaccompa
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12 THE UNITED STATES Sheldon X. Zha
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a long history of admitting large n
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During the 1980 and 1990s, Chinese
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Migrant smuggling in San Diego San
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Mexican Migration Project (MMP) Sur
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Migration, either regular or irregu
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Once migrant smuggling is framed as
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In a market environment where goods
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Most policymakers as well as border
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Cornelius, W.A. and J.M. Lewis (eds
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Roberts, B. et al. 2010 An Analysis
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17 route des Morillons, P.O. Box 17
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Migrant Smuggling Data and Research

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