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x CONTENTS 6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering for PV 205 W.Koch,A.L.Endrös,D.Franke,C.Häßler,J.P.Kalejs and H. J. Möller 6.1 Introduction 205 6.2 Bulk Monocrystalline Material 206 6.2.1 Cz Growth of Single-crystal Silicon 207 6.2.2 Tri-crystalline Silicon 211 6.3 Bulk Multicrystalline Silicon 214 6.3.1 Ingot Fabrication 214 6.3.2 Doping 216 6.3.3 Crystal Defects 217 6.3.4 Impurities 219 6.4 Wafering 223 6.4.1 Multi-wire Wafering Technique 224 6.4.2 Microscopic Process of Wafering 226 6.4.3 Wafer Quality and Saw Damage 229 6.4.4 Cost and Size Considerations 230 6.5 Silicon Ribbon and Foil Production 230 6.5.1 Process Description 232 6.5.2 Productivity Comparisons 238 6.5.3 Manufacturing Technology 239 6.5.4 Ribbon Material Properties and Solar Cells 240 6.5.5 Ribbon/Foil Technology – Future Directions 243 6.6 Numerical Simulations of Crystal Growth Techniques 244 6.6.1 Simulation Tools 245 6.6.2 Thermal Modelling of Silicon Crystallisation Techniques 245 6.6.3 Simulation of Bulk Silicon Crystallisation 247 6.6.4 Simulation of Silicon Ribbon Growth 249 6.7 Conclusions 251 6.8 Acknowledgement 252 References 252 7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells and Modules 255 Ignacio Tobías, Carlos del Cañizo and Jesús Alonso 7.1 Introduction 255 7.2 Crystalline Silicon as a Photovoltaic Material 257 7.2.1 Bulk Properties 257 7.2.2 Surfaces 257 7.3 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 259 7.3.1 Cell Structure 259 7.3.2 Substrate 260 7.3.3 The Front Surface 263 7.3.4 The Back Surface 266 7.3.5 Size Effects 266 7.3.6 Cell Optics 268 7.3.7 Performance Comparison 270
CONTENTS xi 7.4 Manufacturing Process 271 7.4.1 Process Flow 271 7.4.2 Screen-printing Technology 276 7.4.3 Throughput and Yield 279 7.5 Variations to the Basic Process 280 7.5.1 Thin Wafers 280 7.5.2 Back Surface Passivation 281 7.5.3 Improvements to the Front Emitter 281 7.5.4 Rapid Thermal Processes 282 7.6 Multicrystalline Cells 283 7.6.1 Gettering in mc Solar Cells 283 7.6.2 Passivation with Hydrogen 283 7.6.3 Optical Confinement 285 7.7 Other Industrial Approaches 288 7.7.1 Silicon Ribbons 288 7.7.2 Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer 288 7.7.3 Buried Contact Technology 289 7.8 Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules 291 7.8.1 Cell Matrix 291 7.8.2 The Layers of the Module 292 7.8.3 Lamination and Curing 293 7.8.4 Postlamination Steps 294 7.8.5 Special Modules 294 7.9 Electrical and Optical Performance of Modules 295 7.9.1 Electrical and Thermal Characteristics 295 7.9.2 Fabrication Spread and Mismatch Losses 297 7.9.3 Local Shading and Hot Spot Formation 297 7.9.4 Optical Properties 300 7.10 Field Performance of Modules 301 7.10.1 Lifetime 301 7.10.2 Qualification 301 7.11 Conclusions 302 References 303 8 Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells 307 Bhushan Sopori 8.1 Introduction 307 8.2 A Review of Current Thin-film Si Cells 310 8.2.1 Single-crystal Films Using Single-crystal Si Substrates 317 8.2.2 Multicrystalline-Si Substrates 320 8.2.3 Non-Si Substrates 321 8.3 Design Concepts of TF-Si Solar Cells 324 8.3.1 Light-trapping in Thin Si Solar Cells 326 8.3.2 Description of PV Optics 327 8.3.3 Electronic Modeling 333 8.3.4 Methods of Making Thin-Si Films for Solar Cells 341
Page 1 and 2: Handbook of Photovoltaic Science an
Page 3 and 4: We dedicate this book to all those
Page 5 and 6: xxiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Phone: +1
Page 7 and 8: xxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 28040 Mad
Page 9 and 10: Contents List of Contributors xxiii
Page 11: CONTENTS ix 4.3.1 The Balance Equat
Page 15 and 16: CONTENTS xiii 9.8 Future-generation
Page 17 and 18: CONTENTS xv 12.1.2 Designs for Amor
Page 19 and 20: CONTENTS xvii 14.3.3 CdS/CdTe Inter
Page 21 and 22: CONTENTS xix 18.2.2 Batteries with
Page 23 and 24: CONTENTS xxi 22.2 PV in Architectur
Page 25 and 26: 1 Status, Trends, Challenges and th
Page 27 and 28: WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAICS? 3 1.2 WHAT I
Page 29 and 30: SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 5 Sunlig
Page 31 and 32: SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 7 of 10
Page 33 and 34: SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 9 2500 W
Page 35 and 36: HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 11 the maj
Page 37 and 38: HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 the USA
Page 39 and 40: PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 15
Page 41 and 42: PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 17
Page 43 and 44: GOALS OF PV RESEARCH AND MANUFACTUR
Page 45 and 46: GLOBAL TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE AND AP
Page 47 and 48: CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
Page 49 and 50: CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
Page 51 and 52: THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
Page 53 and 54: THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
Page 55 and 56: CONCENTRATION PV SYSTEMS 31 reality
Page 57 and 58: BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 33 Percentage of
Page 59 and 60: BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 35 Total capital
Page 61 and 62: FUTURE OF EMERGING PV TECHNOLOGIES
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CONCLUSIONS 39 Yet, in all these al
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REFERENCES 41 the other hand, hybri
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REFERENCES 43 69. Mickelson R, Chen
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46 MOTIVATION FOR PV APPLICATION AN
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62 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Su
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64 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 3.
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66 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL E
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72 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL an
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74 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL pr
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76 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL No
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80 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL El
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82 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL wh
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84 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL n
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86 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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88 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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94 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Ta
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96 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL cu
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100 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 5
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102 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL I
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106 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL T
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108 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL S
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114 THEORETICAL LIMITS OF PHOTOVOLT
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5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock Bru
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SILICON 155 faces of silicon are (1
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SILICON 157 powder in the presence
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SILICON 159 5.2.4.1.2 Wrought alloy
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PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE S
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PRODUCTION OF SEMICONDUCTOR GRADE S
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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REQUIREMENTS OF SILICON FOR CRYSTAL
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 193 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 195 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 197 d
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 199 d
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CONCLUSIONS 201 2. Another German c
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REFERENCES 203 34. Fischler S, J. A
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6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 207 b
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 209 (
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 211 O
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 213 8
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 215 I
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 217 1
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 219 b
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 221 L
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WAFERING 223 This in turn verifies
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WAFERING 225 suspension of hard gri
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WAFERING 227 tips, they can exert v
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WAFERING 229 6.4.3 Wafer Quality an
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SILICON RIBBON AND FOIL PRODUCTION
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRYSTAL GR
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CONCLUSIONS 251 the supercooling de
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REFERENCES 253 28. Sahoo R et al.,
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7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells a
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A PHOTOVOLTA
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS 259
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 271 The most
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 273 3. Textur
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 275 materials
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 277 nearly 50
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 279 Figure 7.
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VARIATIONS TO THE BASIC PROCESS 281
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 283 of defec
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 285 better s
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 287 Figure 7
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OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPROACHES 289 TCO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
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FIELD PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 301 7.
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REFERENCES 303 REFERENCES 1. Luque
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REFERENCES 305 75. Lenkeit B et al.
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8 Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells Bhu
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INTRODUCTION 309 Open circuit volta
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A REVIEW OF CURRENT THIN-FILM SI CE
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CVD Excimer laser crystallization U
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n-type silicon (0.2 µm) p-type sil
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DESIGN CONCEPTS OF TF-SI SOLAR CELL
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CONCLUSION 353 Introduction of H af
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REFERENCES 355 17. Kamins T, Ed, Po
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REFERENCES 357 98. Symko M, Sopori
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360 HIGH-EFFICIENCY III-V MULTIJUNC
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10 Space Solar Cells and Arrays She
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THE HISTORY OF SPACE SOLAR CELLS 41
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THE CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
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SILICON SOLAR CELLS 425 Figure 10.7
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 427 n+-GaAs n-AlI
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 429 missions with
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 431 supported af
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 433 JPL-25888AC
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 435 Figure 10.13
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 437 Figure 10.15
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 439 0.31 Astrono
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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POWER SYSTEM FIGURES OF MERIT 445 A
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REFERENCES 447 8. Statler R, Curtin
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11 Photovoltaic Concentrators Richa
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INTRODUCTION 451 markets most often
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 453 ha
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 455 is
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 457 sk
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 459 Ho
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 461 thereafter.
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 463 Figure 11.6
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 465 production
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 467 Figure 11.1
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 469 n + bussbar
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 471 array [33].
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 473 Solar radia
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 475 q max,
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 477 If r 1
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 479 r i Med
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 481 When θ
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 483 filled
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 485 q i q i
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 487 For lar
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 489 on a co
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 491 gleaned
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 493 Solar c
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CURRENT CONCENTRATOR ACTIVITIES 495
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REFERENCES 501 11. Boes E, “Photo
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REFERENCES 503 60. Uematsu T et al.
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506 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR C
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13 Cu(InGa)Se 2 Solar Cells William
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INTRODUCTION 569 CdS. The latter en
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 571 Even though
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 573 800 d 785 T
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 575 3.2 x = 0.2
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 577 1µm Figure
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DEPOSITION METHODS 579 though other
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DEPOSITION METHODS 581 much higher
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DEPOSITION METHODS 583 in the tempe
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 585 f
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 587 0
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 589 T
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 591 d
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DEVICE OPERATION 593 the voltage. F
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DEVICE OPERATION 595 1.0 0.8 500 80
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DEVICE OPERATION 597 1.4 V OC [Volt
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DEVICE OPERATION 599 13.5.3 The Cu(
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DEVICE OPERATION 601 Table 13.5 Hig
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 603 can well f
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 605 P1 P1 Mo G
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 607 Finally, f
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THE Cu(InGa)Se 2 OUTLOOK 609 active
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REFERENCES 611 With all these chall
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REFERENCES 613 81. Stolt L, Hedstr
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REFERENCES 615 168. Fahrenbruch A,
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14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells Br
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INTRODUCTION 619 In contrast to p/n
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CdTe PROPERTIES AND THIN-FILM FABRI
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 631 orie
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 633 14.3
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 635 CdTe
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 639 800
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 641 10
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 645 forw
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 647 30 R
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 649 The
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CdTe MODULES 651 14.4 CdTe MODULES
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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REFERENCES 657 This chapter has sho
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REFERENCES 659 60. Wei S, Mtg. Reco
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REFERENCES 661 152. McCandless B, Q
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15 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Kohji
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INTRODUCTION TO DYE-SENSITIZED SOLA
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 679 alko
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 681 15.2
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 683 of highly effi
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 685 HOOC COOH HOOC
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 687 photosensitize
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 689 of these ionic
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APPROACH TO COMMERCIALIZATION 691 1
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Institute and reference Table 15.3
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SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS 695 Chemicals
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REFERENCES 697 4. Dare-Edwards M et
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REFERENCES 699 96. Tennakone K, Kum
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16 Measurement and Characterization
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 703 Spectral
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λ [nm] Table 16.3 AM0 standard sol
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171.5 7.01E − 1 372.5 1074 573.5
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228.5 52.940 429.5 1501 630.7 1682
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288.5 328.400 489.5 1994 689.1 1506
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 713 The extra
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 715 of about
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 717 Energy [W
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 719 16.2.4 Tr
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CURRENT VERSUS VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
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SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITY MEASUREMENTS
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MODULE QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICAT
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REFERENCES 747 REFERENCES 1. Emery
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REFERENCES 749 62. Standard IEC 608
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REFERENCES 751 130. Dondero R, Zirk
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17 Photovoltaic Systems Klaus Preis
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PV POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND A
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 785 NASA
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 787 volta
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 789 well
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 791 A sig
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 793 In st
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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC
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REFERENCES 797 CL Controllable load
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18 Electrochemical Storage for Phot
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GENERAL CONCEPT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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SECONDARY ELECTROCHEMICAL ACCUMULAT
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Table 18.4 Overview of the technica
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BATTERY SYSTEMS WITH EXTERNAL STORA
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INVESTMENT AND LIFETIME COST CONSID
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CONCLUSION 859 This example is just
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REFERENCES 861 10. Ruddell A et al.
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19 Power Conditioning for Photovolt
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CONTROLLERS AND MONITORING SYSTEMS
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INVERTERS 881 19.2 INVERTERS 19.2.1
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INVERTERS 883 Current [A] MPP Power
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INVERTERS 885 S1 S3 DC source AC ou
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INVERTERS 887 V PV V load t 0 t 1 t
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INVERTERS 889 The resulting voltage
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INVERTERS 891 12 V 24 V 48 V 96 V 1
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INVERTERS 893 U DC voltage level U
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INVERTERS 895 100 55 Hz 50 Hz Frequ
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INVERTERS 897 S1 L C 1 C 2 AC outpu
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INVERTERS 899 Time delay Seconds Mi
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INVERTERS 901 Separated part of the
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REFERENCES 903 5. Gonzalez G, Hill
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906 ENERGY COLLECTED AND DELIVERED
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972 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEMS
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1000 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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1002 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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22 PV in Architecture Tjerk H. Reij
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INTRODUCTION 1007 Figure 22.2 Integ
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1009 Figure 22.4
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1013 Heat load a
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1015 • aesthet
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BIPV BASICS 1027 22.3.1.2 Categorie
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BIPV BASICS 1029 Figure 22.34 Alute
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BIPV BASICS 1031 Figure 22.38 Solgr
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BIPV BASICS 1033 Figure 22.42 Canop
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BIPV BASICS 1035 cooling as possibl
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STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
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STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
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REFERENCES 1041 REFERENCES 1. Reije
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23 Photovoltaics and Development Jo
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ELECTRICITY AND DEVELOPMENT 1045 pe
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BREAKING THE CHAINS OF UNDERDEVELOP
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1049 was too exp
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1051 Basic light
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1053 (for a deta
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1055 issued by t
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1057 Needless to
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1059 exports bal
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FOUR EXAMPLES OF PV RURAL ELECTRIFI
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REFERENCES 1069 standard of living
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REFERENCES 1071 36. Martinot E et a
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1074 FINANCING PV GROWTH 1995 : The
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1076 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.2.3 Cap
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1078 FINANCING PV GROWTH can range
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1080 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.2 Typ
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1082 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.5 Exa
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1084 FINANCING PV GROWTH Such PV sy
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1086 FINANCING PV GROWTH approved a
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1088 FINANCING PV GROWTH Ghana: ren
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1090 FINANCING PV GROWTH Table 24.3
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1092 FINANCING PV GROWTH with succe
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1094 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.8.2 Dir
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1096 FINANCING PV GROWTH using a 40
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1098 FINANCING PV GROWTH Current do
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1100 FINANCING PV GROWTH 3503 RE Ut
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1102 FINANCING PV GROWTH was capita
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1104 FINANCING PV GROWTH Policy and
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1106 FINANCING PV GROWTH E-mail: We
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1108 FINANCING PV GROWTH Triodos Ba
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1110 FINANCING PV GROWTH Contact: G
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1112 FINANCING PV GROWTH Phone: 94
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1114 FINANCING PV GROWTH Fax: 91 11
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Index Index Terms Links A a-Si see
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Index Terms Links III-V multijuncti
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Index Terms Links module temperatur
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Index Terms Links CdTe modules 651
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Index Terms Links early demonstrati
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Index Terms Links crystalline silic
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Index Terms Links daily irradiation
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Index Terms Links module fabricatio
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Index Terms Links electricity produ
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Index Terms Links extensive variabl
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Index Terms Links lattice matching
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Index Terms Links heat load and day
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Index Terms Links intensive variabl
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Index Terms Links chemistry 827 828
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Index Terms Links Meteosat weather
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Index Terms Links thin-film silicon
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Index Terms Links energy collection
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Index Terms Links powerguard flat-r
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Index Terms Links rooftop PV genera
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Index Terms Links Siemens Solar Bor
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Index Terms Links Sofrel flat-roof
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Index Terms Links Solar Terrestrial
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Index Terms Links SunPower Corporat
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Index Terms Links surface texture 3
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Index Terms Links waferin 223 224 2
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