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18 Electrochemical Storage for Photovoltaics Dirk Uwe Sauer Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Freiburg, Germany 18.1 INTRODUCTION The availability of solar energy is not only different with respect to the annual yield but varies within the seasons of the year, during day and night and from day to day due to the weather conditions. So do the electrical loads. To balance the differing time patterns of loads and solar energy production, energy storage must be included in almost all autonomous power supply systems. Thirty percent or even more of the lifetime costs of autonomous power supply systems based on solar energy may be attributed to the storage. Only very few autonomous photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems have no battery storage system. These are PV or wind-pumping systems where the difference between water demand and energy supply (solar radiation) is levelled out by means of a water storage tank. PV-powered autonomous power supplies power the complete range of appliances from very small appliances (watches, calculators) with a few milliwatt power requirements to large village power supply systems with about 10 kW power requirements. This chapter is dedicated to applications of PV generators in the range of approximately 10 W to 10 kW. This excludes very small appliances where different storage concepts are used. There are a number of technical solutions to the problem of energy storage. Storing energy in the electric field of a capacitor is a solution for storage times ranging from microseconds up to 10 s. Storing energy in the magnetic field of a coil is a technology that has been under development for many years (supraconducting coils). It has, however, until today, not resulted in a product that has entered the commercial market. Medium and high-speed flywheels are being operated in small numbers in grid support, uninterruptible power supplies and in underground railways or buses to overtake Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. Edited by A. Luque and S. Hegedus © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0-471-49196-9
800 ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE FOR PHOTOVOLTAICS energy from regenerative breaking and to support acceleration. However, storage times are in the range of seconds. Compressed air storage in the MWh range, which after decades of development has not reached the market, and pumped water storage are the other technologies that store the energy mechanically. Pumped water storage shows a pronounced economy of scale, which means that larger systems have lower specific investment costs and better storage efficiencies. This is the reason pumped storage has its application in small grids that supply power in megawatt hours per day rather than in the domain of energy systems based on photovoltaics, which are and will be designed to deliver some 10 kilowatt hours per day. The most promising storage technologies today for the application of which we are discussing here, are electrochemical systems [1]. Therefore, this chapter is dedicated to electrochemical storage systems only. Although a variety of storage technologies are under development, for the systems focused in this chapter the lead acid battery still is, and will be for some years to come, the working horse for autonomous power supply systems. The ageing effects that limit battery lifetimes are treated in detail. Optimised control strategies allow increasing the battery lifetime and a considerable reduction of the overall system costs. For storing large energy quantities with low power requirements, electrochemical storage systems with separate storage and power conversion units are under development. These are namely hydrogen storage systems with an electrolyser and a fuel cell as converters and redox-battery systems. The latter use charged ions from metal salts dissolved in liquids as the storage medium and a converter unit quite similar to a fuel cell. These systems are getting more and more interesting as seasonal storage systems and for balancing power generation and power demand in grids with a high penetration of renewable power sources (mainly wind and sun). There are numerous requirements for storage systems in autonomous power supply systems. Their importance in different applications is different; some of them are in contradiction to each other and therefore they cannot be fulfilled at the same time. Table 18.1 Table 18.1 Requirements to electrical storage systems in autonomous power supply systems (the order of appearance does not imply any weighting of their importance) • High energy efficiency • Long lifetime (years) • Long lifetime in terms of capacity throughput • Low costs • Good charge efficiency even at very low currents • Low self-discharge rate • Low maintenance requirements • High availability worldwide • High power availability • Easy estimation of state of charge and state of health Note: MTBF: mean time between failure • Low exposure • Easy recycling • Low toxicity of materials • Fail-safe behaviour at overcharging or deep discharge • Easy extendibility in voltage and capacity through series and parallel connection • Low voltage gap between charging and discharging (allows direct connection of loads to the battery) • Fast charging ability • No memory effect • Low explosive potential • High reliability in operation: high MTBF
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Handbook of Photovoltaic Science an
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We dedicate this book to all those
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xxiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Phone: +1
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xxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 28040 Mad
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Contents List of Contributors xxiii
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CONTENTS ix 4.3.1 The Balance Equat
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CONTENTS xi 7.4 Manufacturing Proce
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CONTENTS xiii 9.8 Future-generation
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CONTENTS xv 12.1.2 Designs for Amor
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CONTENTS xvii 14.3.3 CdS/CdTe Inter
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CONTENTS xix 18.2.2 Batteries with
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CONTENTS xxi 22.2 PV in Architectur
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1 Status, Trends, Challenges and th
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WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAICS? 3 1.2 WHAT I
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 5 Sunlig
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 7 of 10
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 9 2500 W
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 11 the maj
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 the USA
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 15
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 17
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GOALS OF PV RESEARCH AND MANUFACTUR
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GLOBAL TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE AND AP
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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CONCENTRATION PV SYSTEMS 31 reality
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 33 Percentage of
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 35 Total capital
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FUTURE OF EMERGING PV TECHNOLOGIES
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CONCLUSIONS 39 Yet, in all these al
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REFERENCES 41 the other hand, hybri
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REFERENCES 43 69. Mickelson R, Chen
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46 MOTIVATION FOR PV APPLICATION AN
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62 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Su
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64 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 3.
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66 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL E
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72 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL an
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74 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL pr
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76 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL No
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80 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL El
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82 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL wh
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84 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL n
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86 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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88 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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94 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Ta
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96 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL cu
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100 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 5
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102 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL I
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106 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL T
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108 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL S
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114 THEORETICAL LIMITS OF PHOTOVOLT
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5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock Bru
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SILICON 155 faces of silicon are (1
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SILICON 157 powder in the presence
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SILICON 159 5.2.4.1.2 Wrought alloy
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PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE S
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PRODUCTION OF SEMICONDUCTOR GRADE S
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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REQUIREMENTS OF SILICON FOR CRYSTAL
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 193 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 195 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 197 d
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 199 d
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CONCLUSIONS 201 2. Another German c
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REFERENCES 203 34. Fischler S, J. A
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6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 207 b
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 209 (
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 211 O
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 213 8
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 215 I
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 217 1
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 219 b
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 221 L
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WAFERING 223 This in turn verifies
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WAFERING 225 suspension of hard gri
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WAFERING 227 tips, they can exert v
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WAFERING 229 6.4.3 Wafer Quality an
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SILICON RIBBON AND FOIL PRODUCTION
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRYSTAL GR
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CONCLUSIONS 251 the supercooling de
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REFERENCES 253 28. Sahoo R et al.,
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7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells a
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A PHOTOVOLTA
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS 259
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 271 The most
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 273 3. Textur
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 275 materials
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 277 nearly 50
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 279 Figure 7.
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VARIATIONS TO THE BASIC PROCESS 281
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 283 of defec
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 285 better s
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 287 Figure 7
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OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPROACHES 289 TCO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
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FIELD PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 301 7.
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REFERENCES 303 REFERENCES 1. Luque
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REFERENCES 305 75. Lenkeit B et al.
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8 Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells Bhu
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INTRODUCTION 309 Open circuit volta
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A REVIEW OF CURRENT THIN-FILM SI CE
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CVD Excimer laser crystallization U
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n-type silicon (0.2 µm) p-type sil
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DESIGN CONCEPTS OF TF-SI SOLAR CELL
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CONCLUSION 353 Introduction of H af
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REFERENCES 355 17. Kamins T, Ed, Po
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REFERENCES 357 98. Symko M, Sopori
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360 HIGH-EFFICIENCY III-V MULTIJUNC
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10 Space Solar Cells and Arrays She
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THE HISTORY OF SPACE SOLAR CELLS 41
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THE CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
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SILICON SOLAR CELLS 425 Figure 10.7
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 427 n+-GaAs n-AlI
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 429 missions with
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 431 supported af
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 433 JPL-25888AC
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 435 Figure 10.13
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 437 Figure 10.15
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 439 0.31 Astrono
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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POWER SYSTEM FIGURES OF MERIT 445 A
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REFERENCES 447 8. Statler R, Curtin
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11 Photovoltaic Concentrators Richa
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INTRODUCTION 451 markets most often
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 453 ha
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 455 is
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 457 sk
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 459 Ho
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 461 thereafter.
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 463 Figure 11.6
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 465 production
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 467 Figure 11.1
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 469 n + bussbar
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 471 array [33].
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 473 Solar radia
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 475 q max,
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 477 If r 1
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 479 r i Med
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 481 When θ
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 483 filled
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 485 q i q i
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 487 For lar
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 489 on a co
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 491 gleaned
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 493 Solar c
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CURRENT CONCENTRATOR ACTIVITIES 495
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REFERENCES 501 11. Boes E, “Photo
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REFERENCES 503 60. Uematsu T et al.
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506 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR C
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13 Cu(InGa)Se 2 Solar Cells William
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INTRODUCTION 569 CdS. The latter en
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 571 Even though
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 573 800 d 785 T
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 575 3.2 x = 0.2
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 577 1µm Figure
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DEPOSITION METHODS 579 though other
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DEPOSITION METHODS 581 much higher
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DEPOSITION METHODS 583 in the tempe
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 585 f
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 587 0
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 589 T
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 591 d
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DEVICE OPERATION 593 the voltage. F
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DEVICE OPERATION 595 1.0 0.8 500 80
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DEVICE OPERATION 597 1.4 V OC [Volt
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DEVICE OPERATION 599 13.5.3 The Cu(
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DEVICE OPERATION 601 Table 13.5 Hig
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 603 can well f
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 605 P1 P1 Mo G
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 607 Finally, f
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THE Cu(InGa)Se 2 OUTLOOK 609 active
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REFERENCES 611 With all these chall
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REFERENCES 613 81. Stolt L, Hedstr
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REFERENCES 615 168. Fahrenbruch A,
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14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells Br
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INTRODUCTION 619 In contrast to p/n
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CdTe PROPERTIES AND THIN-FILM FABRI
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 631 orie
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 633 14.3
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 635 CdTe
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 639 800
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 641 10
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 645 forw
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 647 30 R
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 649 The
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CdTe MODULES 651 14.4 CdTe MODULES
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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REFERENCES 657 This chapter has sho
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REFERENCES 659 60. Wei S, Mtg. Reco
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REFERENCES 661 152. McCandless B, Q
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15 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Kohji
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INTRODUCTION TO DYE-SENSITIZED SOLA
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 679 alko
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 681 15.2
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 683 of highly effi
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 685 HOOC COOH HOOC
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 687 photosensitize
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 689 of these ionic
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APPROACH TO COMMERCIALIZATION 691 1
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Institute and reference Table 15.3
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SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS 695 Chemicals
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REFERENCES 697 4. Dare-Edwards M et
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REFERENCES 699 96. Tennakone K, Kum
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16 Measurement and Characterization
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 703 Spectral
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λ [nm] Table 16.3 AM0 standard sol
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171.5 7.01E − 1 372.5 1074 573.5
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228.5 52.940 429.5 1501 630.7 1682
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288.5 328.400 489.5 1994 689.1 1506
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 713 The extra
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 715 of about
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 717 Energy [W
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 719 16.2.4 Tr
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CURRENT VERSUS VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
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SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITY MEASUREMENTS
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MODULE QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICAT
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REFERENCES 747 REFERENCES 1. Emery
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BATTERY SYSTEMS WITH EXTERNAL STORA
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INVESTMENT AND LIFETIME COST CONSID
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CONCLUSION 859 This example is just
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REFERENCES 861 10. Ruddell A et al.
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19 Power Conditioning for Photovolt
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CONTROLLERS AND MONITORING SYSTEMS
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INVERTERS 881 19.2 INVERTERS 19.2.1
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INVERTERS 883 Current [A] MPP Power
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INVERTERS 885 S1 S3 DC source AC ou
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INVERTERS 887 V PV V load t 0 t 1 t
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INVERTERS 889 The resulting voltage
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INVERTERS 891 12 V 24 V 48 V 96 V 1
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INVERTERS 893 U DC voltage level U
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INVERTERS 895 100 55 Hz 50 Hz Frequ
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INVERTERS 897 S1 L C 1 C 2 AC outpu
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INVERTERS 899 Time delay Seconds Mi
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INVERTERS 901 Separated part of the
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REFERENCES 903 5. Gonzalez G, Hill
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906 ENERGY COLLECTED AND DELIVERED
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972 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEMS
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1000 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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1002 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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22 PV in Architecture Tjerk H. Reij
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INTRODUCTION 1007 Figure 22.2 Integ
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1009 Figure 22.4
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1013 Heat load a
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1015 • aesthet
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BIPV BASICS 1027 22.3.1.2 Categorie
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BIPV BASICS 1029 Figure 22.34 Alute
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BIPV BASICS 1031 Figure 22.38 Solgr
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BIPV BASICS 1033 Figure 22.42 Canop
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BIPV BASICS 1035 cooling as possibl
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STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
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STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
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REFERENCES 1041 REFERENCES 1. Reije
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23 Photovoltaics and Development Jo
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ELECTRICITY AND DEVELOPMENT 1045 pe
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BREAKING THE CHAINS OF UNDERDEVELOP
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1049 was too exp
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1051 Basic light
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1053 (for a deta
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1055 issued by t
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1057 Needless to
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THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1059 exports bal
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FOUR EXAMPLES OF PV RURAL ELECTRIFI
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REFERENCES 1069 standard of living
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REFERENCES 1071 36. Martinot E et a
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1074 FINANCING PV GROWTH 1995 : The
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1076 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.2.3 Cap
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1078 FINANCING PV GROWTH can range
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1080 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.2 Typ
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1082 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.5 Exa
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1084 FINANCING PV GROWTH Such PV sy
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1086 FINANCING PV GROWTH approved a
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1088 FINANCING PV GROWTH Ghana: ren
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1090 FINANCING PV GROWTH Table 24.3
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1092 FINANCING PV GROWTH with succe
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1094 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.8.2 Dir
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1096 FINANCING PV GROWTH using a 40
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1098 FINANCING PV GROWTH Current do
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1100 FINANCING PV GROWTH 3503 RE Ut
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1102 FINANCING PV GROWTH was capita
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1104 FINANCING PV GROWTH Policy and
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1106 FINANCING PV GROWTH E-mail: We
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1108 FINANCING PV GROWTH Triodos Ba
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1110 FINANCING PV GROWTH Contact: G
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1112 FINANCING PV GROWTH Phone: 94
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1114 FINANCING PV GROWTH Fax: 91 11
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Index Index Terms Links A a-Si see
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Index Terms Links III-V multijuncti
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Index Terms Links module temperatur
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Index Terms Links CdTe modules 651
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Index Terms Links early demonstrati
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Index Terms Links crystalline silic
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Index Terms Links daily irradiation
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Index Terms Links module fabricatio
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Index Terms Links electricity produ
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Index Terms Links extensive variabl
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Index Terms Links lattice matching
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Index Terms Links heat load and day
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Index Terms Links intensive variabl
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Index Terms Links chemistry 827 828
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Index Terms Links Meteosat weather
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Index Terms Links thin-film silicon
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Index Terms Links energy collection
Page 1177 and 1178:
Index Terms Links powerguard flat-r
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Index Terms Links rooftop PV genera
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Index Terms Links Siemens Solar Bor
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Index Terms Links Sofrel flat-roof
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Index Terms Links Solar Terrestrial
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Index Terms Links SunPower Corporat
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Index Terms Links surface texture 3
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Index Terms Links waferin 223 224 2
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