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164 SOLAR GRADE SILICON FEEDSTOCK the degree of refining is determined by distribution equilibria (5.20) to (5.23), where the (parentheses) refer to components dissolved in a slag phase and the underscored symbols refer to dissolved elements in liquid silicon: 4Al + 3(SiO 2 ) = 3Si(l) + 2(Al 2 O 3 ) (5.20) 2Ca + SiO 2 = Si(l) + 2(CaO) (5.21) 2Mg + SiO 2 = Si(l) + 2(MgO) (5.22) S(l) + O 2 = (SiO 2 ) (5.23) Theoretically it is possible to remove Al and Ca to very low levels, but in practice this is prevented by the large heat losses occurring during this operation. Temperature drops to 1700 to 1500 ◦ C, and to avoid freezing of the melt, some of the silica needed for slag Raw material C SiO 2 Consumable electrodes Cleaned gas Electric energy Filter Charge material Liquid metal Refining Crater Recovered energy Silica Solidification Sizing Crushing Silicon (a) Figure 5.1 (a) and (b) Schematic representation of a furnace for production of metallurgical grade silicon. Reproduced from Schei A, Tuset J, Tveit H, Production of High Silicon Alloys, Tapir forlag, Trondheim (1998) with permission by Haluard Tueit
PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE SILICON 165 (b) Figure 5.1 (continued) formation is provided by direct oxidation of Si(l) with added oxygen (oxygen is added to heat silicon to keep it liquid). A disadvantage of this operation is also a partial oxidation of silicon resulting in expensive material losses. After completion of oxidative refining in the ladle, the slag, which contains part of the impurities, is removed mechanically or by gravity and liquid silicon is poured into a casting mold. The slag-forming additives influence the slag density and viscosity, hence
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Handbook of Photovoltaic Science an
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We dedicate this book to all those
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xxiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Phone: +1
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xxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 28040 Mad
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Contents List of Contributors xxiii
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CONTENTS ix 4.3.1 The Balance Equat
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CONTENTS xi 7.4 Manufacturing Proce
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CONTENTS xiii 9.8 Future-generation
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CONTENTS xv 12.1.2 Designs for Amor
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CONTENTS xvii 14.3.3 CdS/CdTe Inter
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CONTENTS xix 18.2.2 Batteries with
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CONTENTS xxi 22.2 PV in Architectur
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1 Status, Trends, Challenges and th
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WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAICS? 3 1.2 WHAT I
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 5 Sunlig
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 7 of 10
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 9 2500 W
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 11 the maj
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 the USA
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 15
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 17
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GOALS OF PV RESEARCH AND MANUFACTUR
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GLOBAL TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE AND AP
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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CONCENTRATION PV SYSTEMS 31 reality
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 33 Percentage of
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 35 Total capital
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FUTURE OF EMERGING PV TECHNOLOGIES
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CONCLUSIONS 39 Yet, in all these al
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REFERENCES 41 the other hand, hybri
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REFERENCES 43 69. Mickelson R, Chen
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46 MOTIVATION FOR PV APPLICATION AN
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62 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Su
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64 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 3.
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66 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL E
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72 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL an
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74 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL pr
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76 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL No
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80 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL El
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82 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL wh
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84 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL n
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86 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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88 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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94 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Ta
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96 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL cu
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100 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 5
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102 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL I
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104 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 4
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106 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL T
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108 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL S
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Page 135 and 136: 112 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 1
Page 137 and 138: 114 THEORETICAL LIMITS OF PHOTOVOLT
Page 175 and 176: 5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock Bru
Page 177 and 178: SILICON 155 faces of silicon are (1
Page 179 and 180: SILICON 157 powder in the presence
Page 181 and 182: SILICON 159 5.2.4.1.2 Wrought alloy
Page 183 and 184: PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE S
Page 185: PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE S
Page 189 and 190: PRODUCTION OF SEMICONDUCTOR GRADE S
Page 197 and 198: CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
Page 199 and 200: CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
Page 201 and 202: REQUIREMENTS OF SILICON FOR CRYSTAL
Page 215 and 216: ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 193 c
Page 217 and 218: ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 195 c
Page 219 and 220: ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 197 d
Page 221 and 222: ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 199 d
Page 223 and 224: CONCLUSIONS 201 2. Another German c
Page 225 and 226: REFERENCES 203 34. Fischler S, J. A
Page 227 and 228: 6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering
Page 229 and 230: BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 207 b
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Page 233 and 234: BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 211 O
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 215 I
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 217 1
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 219 b
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 221 L
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WAFERING 223 This in turn verifies
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WAFERING 225 suspension of hard gri
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WAFERING 227 tips, they can exert v
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WAFERING 229 6.4.3 Wafer Quality an
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SILICON RIBBON AND FOIL PRODUCTION
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRYSTAL GR
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CONCLUSIONS 251 the supercooling de
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REFERENCES 253 28. Sahoo R et al.,
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7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells a
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A PHOTOVOLTA
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS 259
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 271 The most
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 273 3. Textur
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 275 materials
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 277 nearly 50
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 279 Figure 7.
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VARIATIONS TO THE BASIC PROCESS 281
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 283 of defec
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 285 better s
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 287 Figure 7
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OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPROACHES 289 TCO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
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FIELD PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 301 7.
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REFERENCES 303 REFERENCES 1. Luque
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REFERENCES 305 75. Lenkeit B et al.
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8 Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells Bhu
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INTRODUCTION 309 Open circuit volta
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A REVIEW OF CURRENT THIN-FILM SI CE
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CVD Excimer laser crystallization U
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n-type silicon (0.2 µm) p-type sil
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DESIGN CONCEPTS OF TF-SI SOLAR CELL
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CONCLUSION 353 Introduction of H af
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REFERENCES 355 17. Kamins T, Ed, Po
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REFERENCES 357 98. Symko M, Sopori
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360 HIGH-EFFICIENCY III-V MULTIJUNC
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10 Space Solar Cells and Arrays She
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THE HISTORY OF SPACE SOLAR CELLS 41
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THE CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
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SILICON SOLAR CELLS 425 Figure 10.7
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 427 n+-GaAs n-AlI
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III-V SOLAR CELLS 429 missions with
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 431 supported af
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 433 JPL-25888AC
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 435 Figure 10.13
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 437 Figure 10.15
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SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 439 0.31 Astrono
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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POWER SYSTEM FIGURES OF MERIT 445 A
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REFERENCES 447 8. Statler R, Curtin
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11 Photovoltaic Concentrators Richa
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INTRODUCTION 451 markets most often
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 453 ha
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 455 is
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 457 sk
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BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 459 Ho
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 461 thereafter.
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 463 Figure 11.6
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 465 production
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 467 Figure 11.1
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 469 n + bussbar
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 471 array [33].
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HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 473 Solar radia
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 475 q max,
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 477 If r 1
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 479 r i Med
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 481 When θ
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 483 filled
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 485 q i q i
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 487 For lar
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 489 on a co
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 491 gleaned
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OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 493 Solar c
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CURRENT CONCENTRATOR ACTIVITIES 495
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REFERENCES 501 11. Boes E, “Photo
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REFERENCES 503 60. Uematsu T et al.
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506 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR C
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13 Cu(InGa)Se 2 Solar Cells William
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INTRODUCTION 569 CdS. The latter en
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 571 Even though
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 573 800 d 785 T
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 575 3.2 x = 0.2
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 577 1µm Figure
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DEPOSITION METHODS 579 though other
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DEPOSITION METHODS 581 much higher
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DEPOSITION METHODS 583 in the tempe
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 585 f
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 587 0
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 589 T
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 591 d
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DEVICE OPERATION 593 the voltage. F
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DEVICE OPERATION 595 1.0 0.8 500 80
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DEVICE OPERATION 597 1.4 V OC [Volt
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DEVICE OPERATION 599 13.5.3 The Cu(
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DEVICE OPERATION 601 Table 13.5 Hig
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 603 can well f
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 605 P1 P1 Mo G
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 607 Finally, f
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THE Cu(InGa)Se 2 OUTLOOK 609 active
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REFERENCES 611 With all these chall
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REFERENCES 613 81. Stolt L, Hedstr
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REFERENCES 615 168. Fahrenbruch A,
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14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells Br
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INTRODUCTION 619 In contrast to p/n
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CdTe PROPERTIES AND THIN-FILM FABRI
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 631 orie
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 633 14.3
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 635 CdTe
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 639 800
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 641 10
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 645 forw
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 647 30 R
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 649 The
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CdTe MODULES 651 14.4 CdTe MODULES
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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REFERENCES 657 This chapter has sho
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REFERENCES 659 60. Wei S, Mtg. Reco
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REFERENCES 661 152. McCandless B, Q
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15 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Kohji
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INTRODUCTION TO DYE-SENSITIZED SOLA
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 679 alko
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 681 15.2
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 683 of highly effi
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 685 HOOC COOH HOOC
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 687 photosensitize
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 689 of these ionic
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APPROACH TO COMMERCIALIZATION 691 1
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Institute and reference Table 15.3
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SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS 695 Chemicals
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REFERENCES 697 4. Dare-Edwards M et
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REFERENCES 699 96. Tennakone K, Kum
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16 Measurement and Characterization
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 703 Spectral
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λ [nm] Table 16.3 AM0 standard sol
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171.5 7.01E − 1 372.5 1074 573.5
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228.5 52.940 429.5 1501 630.7 1682
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288.5 328.400 489.5 1994 689.1 1506
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 713 The extra
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 715 of about
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 717 Energy [W
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 719 16.2.4 Tr
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CURRENT VERSUS VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
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SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITY MEASUREMENTS
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MODULE QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICAT
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REFERENCES 747 REFERENCES 1. Emery
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REFERENCES 749 62. Standard IEC 608
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REFERENCES 751 130. Dondero R, Zirk
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17 Photovoltaic Systems Klaus Preis
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PV POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND A
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 785 NASA
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 787 volta
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 789 well
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 791 A sig
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 793 In st
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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC
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REFERENCES 797 CL Controllable load
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18 Electrochemical Storage for Phot
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GENERAL CONCEPT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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SECONDARY ELECTROCHEMICAL ACCUMULAT
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Table 18.4 Overview of the technica
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INVESTMENT AND LIFETIME COST CONSID
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CONCLUSION 859 This example is just
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REFERENCES 861 10. Ruddell A et al.
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19 Power Conditioning for Photovolt
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CONTROLLERS AND MONITORING SYSTEMS
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INVERTERS 881 19.2 INVERTERS 19.2.1
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INVERTERS 883 Current [A] MPP Power
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INVERTERS 885 S1 S3 DC source AC ou
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INVERTERS 887 V PV V load t 0 t 1 t
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INVERTERS 889 The resulting voltage
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INVERTERS 891 12 V 24 V 48 V 96 V 1
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INVERTERS 893 U DC voltage level U
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INVERTERS 895 100 55 Hz 50 Hz Frequ
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INVERTERS 897 S1 L C 1 C 2 AC outpu
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INVERTERS 899 Time delay Seconds Mi
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INVERTERS 901 Separated part of the
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REFERENCES 903 5. Gonzalez G, Hill
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906 ENERGY COLLECTED AND DELIVERED
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972 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEMS
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1000 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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1002 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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22 PV in Architecture Tjerk H. Reij
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INTRODUCTION 1007 Figure 22.2 Integ
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1009 Figure 22.4
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1013 Heat load a
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1015 • aesthet
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BIPV BASICS 1027 22.3.1.2 Categorie
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BIPV BASICS 1029 Figure 22.34 Alute
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BIPV BASICS 1031 Figure 22.38 Solgr
Page 1061 and 1062:
BIPV BASICS 1033 Figure 22.42 Canop
Page 1063 and 1064:
BIPV BASICS 1035 cooling as possibl
Page 1065 and 1066:
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
Page 1067 and 1068:
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
Page 1069 and 1070:
REFERENCES 1041 REFERENCES 1. Reije
Page 1071 and 1072:
23 Photovoltaics and Development Jo
Page 1073 and 1074:
ELECTRICITY AND DEVELOPMENT 1045 pe
Page 1075 and 1076:
BREAKING THE CHAINS OF UNDERDEVELOP
Page 1077 and 1078:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1049 was too exp
Page 1079 and 1080:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1051 Basic light
Page 1081 and 1082:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1053 (for a deta
Page 1083 and 1084:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1055 issued by t
Page 1085 and 1086:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1057 Needless to
Page 1087 and 1088:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1059 exports bal
Page 1089 and 1090:
FOUR EXAMPLES OF PV RURAL ELECTRIFI
Page 1091 and 1092:
Page 1093 and 1094:
Page 1095 and 1096:
Page 1097 and 1098:
REFERENCES 1069 standard of living
Page 1099 and 1100:
REFERENCES 1071 36. Martinot E et a
Page 1101 and 1102:
1074 FINANCING PV GROWTH 1995 : The
Page 1103 and 1104:
1076 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.2.3 Cap
Page 1105 and 1106:
1078 FINANCING PV GROWTH can range
Page 1107 and 1108:
1080 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.2 Typ
Page 1109 and 1110:
1082 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.5 Exa
Page 1111 and 1112:
1084 FINANCING PV GROWTH Such PV sy
Page 1113 and 1114:
1086 FINANCING PV GROWTH approved a
Page 1115 and 1116:
1088 FINANCING PV GROWTH Ghana: ren
Page 1117 and 1118:
1090 FINANCING PV GROWTH Table 24.3
Page 1119 and 1120:
1092 FINANCING PV GROWTH with succe
Page 1121 and 1122:
1094 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.8.2 Dir
Page 1123 and 1124:
1096 FINANCING PV GROWTH using a 40
Page 1125 and 1126:
1098 FINANCING PV GROWTH Current do
Page 1127 and 1128:
1100 FINANCING PV GROWTH 3503 RE Ut
Page 1129 and 1130:
1102 FINANCING PV GROWTH was capita
Page 1131 and 1132:
1104 FINANCING PV GROWTH Policy and
Page 1133 and 1134:
1106 FINANCING PV GROWTH E-mail: We
Page 1135 and 1136:
1108 FINANCING PV GROWTH Triodos Ba
Page 1137 and 1138:
1110 FINANCING PV GROWTH Contact: G
Page 1139 and 1140:
1112 FINANCING PV GROWTH Phone: 94
Page 1141 and 1142:
1114 FINANCING PV GROWTH Fax: 91 11
Page 1143 and 1144:
Index Index Terms Links A a-Si see
Page 1145 and 1146:
Index Terms Links III-V multijuncti
Page 1147 and 1148:
Index Terms Links module temperatur
Page 1149 and 1150:
Index Terms Links CdTe modules 651
Page 1151 and 1152:
Index Terms Links early demonstrati
Page 1153 and 1154:
Index Terms Links crystalline silic
Page 1155 and 1156:
Index Terms Links daily irradiation
Page 1157 and 1158:
Index Terms Links module fabricatio
Page 1159 and 1160:
Index Terms Links electricity produ
Page 1161 and 1162:
Index Terms Links extensive variabl
Page 1163 and 1164:
Index Terms Links lattice matching
Page 1165 and 1166:
Index Terms Links heat load and day
Page 1167 and 1168:
Index Terms Links intensive variabl
Page 1169 and 1170:
Index Terms Links chemistry 827 828
Page 1171 and 1172:
Index Terms Links Meteosat weather
Page 1173 and 1174:
Index Terms Links thin-film silicon
Page 1175 and 1176:
Index Terms Links energy collection
Page 1177 and 1178:
Index Terms Links powerguard flat-r
Page 1179 and 1180:
Index Terms Links rooftop PV genera
Page 1181 and 1182:
Index Terms Links Siemens Solar Bor
Page 1183 and 1184:
Index Terms Links Sofrel flat-roof
Page 1185 and 1186:
Index Terms Links Solar Terrestrial
Page 1187 and 1188:
Index Terms Links SunPower Corporat
Page 1189 and 1190:
Index Terms Links surface texture 3
Page 1191:
Index Terms Links waferin 223 224 2
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