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472 PHOTOVOLTAIC CONCENTRATORS Figure 11.16 of Noto Albedo-collecting modules in a 10 kWp installation in the Senegalese village Fraunhofer group is a one-axis tracing approach that achieves high concentration through the use of secondary optical elements [41]. The concept is shown in Figure 11.17. 11.3.9 History of Performance Improvements The performance on concentrator cells and modules has steadily improved over time, as would be expected. Figure 11.18 presents the independently verified efficiency records from 1977 to 2001. Early silicon concentrator cells were basically 1-sun cells redesigned for high current by providing a fine, high metal coverage grid. The efficiency of this approach rapidly achieved 20% by 1982 [12]. The Swanson group at Stanford University introduced the back point-contact cell in 1984 with an efficiency of 22% [42]. The point-contact cell has maintained the efficiency record for silicon concentrator cells to the present. GaAs-based cells have always had superior performance to silicon. Varian introduced a 26% GaAs cell in 1980, and increased this to 29% in 1988. Unfortunately, it was eclipsed in 1988 by the first multijunction cell to set a record – a 31% mechanically stacked GaAs cell on a silicon bottom cell [43]. This result was eclipsed by a mechanically stacked GaAs on GaSb, which set a record that lasted until 2001. In 2000, Spectrolab announced a 32% monolithically stacked GaInP on GaAs cell [44]. They followed this up with a 34% result in 2001 (Spectrolab press release), finally outdoing the 1988 mechanically stacked record with a fully monolithic triple-junction cell.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 473 Solar radiation N 23.5° W E S Solar cells 3D secondaries Polar tracking axis Parabolic trough Figure 11.17 A two-stage concentrator permitting 300X concentration with one-axis tracking. Reprinted from Sol. Energy, 56, Brunotte M, Goetzberger A, Blieske U, 285–300, © (2002), with permission from Elsevier Science 40 35 30 Efficiency [%] 25 20 15 10 5 0 Figure 11.18 1977 1979 1981 GaAs and multijunction cells Silicon cells GaAs and multijunction modules Silicon modules 1983 1984 1986 1988 Year 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 Record concentrator cell and module efficiencies
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Handbook of Photovoltaic Science an
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We dedicate this book to all those
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xxiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Phone: +1
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xxvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 28040 Mad
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Contents List of Contributors xxiii
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CONTENTS ix 4.3.1 The Balance Equat
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CONTENTS xi 7.4 Manufacturing Proce
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CONTENTS xiii 9.8 Future-generation
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CONTENTS xv 12.1.2 Designs for Amor
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CONTENTS xvii 14.3.3 CdS/CdTe Inter
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CONTENTS xix 18.2.2 Batteries with
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CONTENTS xxi 22.2 PV in Architectur
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1 Status, Trends, Challenges and th
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WHAT IS PHOTOVOLTAICS? 3 1.2 WHAT I
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 5 Sunlig
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 7 of 10
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SIX MYTHS OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 9 2500 W
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 11 the maj
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HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 the USA
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 15
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PV COSTS, MARKETS AND FORECASTS 17
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GOALS OF PV RESEARCH AND MANUFACTUR
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GLOBAL TRENDS IN PERFORMANCE AND AP
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PROGRESS AND CH
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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THIN FILM PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 2
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CONCENTRATION PV SYSTEMS 31 reality
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 33 Percentage of
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BALANCE OF SYSTEMS 35 Total capital
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FUTURE OF EMERGING PV TECHNOLOGIES
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CONCLUSIONS 39 Yet, in all these al
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REFERENCES 41 the other hand, hybri
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REFERENCES 43 69. Mickelson R, Chen
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46 MOTIVATION FOR PV APPLICATION AN
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62 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Su
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64 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 3.
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66 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL E
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72 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL an
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74 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL pr
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76 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL No
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80 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL El
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82 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL wh
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84 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL n
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86 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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88 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Th
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94 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL Ta
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96 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL cu
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100 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL 5
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102 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL I
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106 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL T
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108 THE PHYSICS OF THE SOLAR CELL S
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114 THEORETICAL LIMITS OF PHOTOVOLT
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5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock Bru
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SILICON 155 faces of silicon are (1
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SILICON 157 powder in the presence
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SILICON 159 5.2.4.1.2 Wrought alloy
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PRODUCTION OF METALLURGICAL GRADE S
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PRODUCTION OF SEMICONDUCTOR GRADE S
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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CURRENT SILICON FEEDSTOCK TO SOLAR
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REQUIREMENTS OF SILICON FOR CRYSTAL
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 193 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 195 c
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 197 d
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ROUTES TO SOLAR GRADE SILICON 199 d
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CONCLUSIONS 201 2. Another German c
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REFERENCES 203 34. Fischler S, J. A
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6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 207 b
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 209 (
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 211 O
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BULK MONOCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL 213 8
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 215 I
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 217 1
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 219 b
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BULK MULTICRYSTALLINE SILICON 221 L
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WAFERING 223 This in turn verifies
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WAFERING 225 suspension of hard gri
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WAFERING 227 tips, they can exert v
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WAFERING 229 6.4.3 Wafer Quality an
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SILICON RIBBON AND FOIL PRODUCTION
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NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF CRYSTAL GR
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CONCLUSIONS 251 the supercooling de
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REFERENCES 253 28. Sahoo R et al.,
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7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells a
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON AS A PHOTOVOLTA
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON SOLAR CELLS 259
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 271 The most
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 273 3. Textur
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 275 materials
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 277 nearly 50
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MANUFACTURING PROCESS 279 Figure 7.
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VARIATIONS TO THE BASIC PROCESS 281
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 283 of defec
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 285 better s
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MULTICRYSTALLINE CELLS 287 Figure 7
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OTHER INDUSTRIAL APPROACHES 289 TCO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MO
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ELECTRICAL AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
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FIELD PERFORMANCE OF MODULES 301 7.
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REFERENCES 303 REFERENCES 1. Luque
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REFERENCES 305 75. Lenkeit B et al.
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8 Thin-film Silicon Solar Cells Bhu
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INTRODUCTION 309 Open circuit volta
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A REVIEW OF CURRENT THIN-FILM SI CE
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CVD Excimer laser crystallization U
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n-type silicon (0.2 µm) p-type sil
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DESIGN CONCEPTS OF TF-SI SOLAR CELL
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CONCLUSION 353 Introduction of H af
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REFERENCES 355 17. Kamins T, Ed, Po
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REFERENCES 357 98. Symko M, Sopori
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360 HIGH-EFFICIENCY III-V MULTIJUNC
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10 Space Solar Cells and Arrays She
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THE HISTORY OF SPACE SOLAR CELLS 41
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THE CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
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THE CHALLENGE FOR SPACE SOLAR CELLS
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Page 447 and 448: SILICON SOLAR CELLS 425 Figure 10.7
Page 449 and 450: III-V SOLAR CELLS 427 n+-GaAs n-AlI
Page 451 and 452: III-V SOLAR CELLS 429 missions with
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Page 457 and 458: SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 435 Figure 10.13
Page 459 and 460: SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 437 Figure 10.15
Page 461 and 462: SPACE SOLAR ARRAYS 439 0.31 Astrono
Page 463 and 464: FUTURE CELL AND ARRAY POSSIBILITIES
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Page 467 and 468: POWER SYSTEM FIGURES OF MERIT 445 A
Page 469 and 470: REFERENCES 447 8. Statler R, Curtin
Page 471 and 472: 11 Photovoltaic Concentrators Richa
Page 473 and 474: INTRODUCTION 451 markets most often
Page 475 and 476: BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 453 ha
Page 477 and 478: BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 455 is
Page 479 and 480: BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 457 sk
Page 481 and 482: BASIC TYPES OF CONCENTRATORS 459 Ho
Page 483 and 484: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 461 thereafter.
Page 485 and 486: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 463 Figure 11.6
Page 487 and 488: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 465 production
Page 489 and 490: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 467 Figure 11.1
Page 491 and 492: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 469 n + bussbar
Page 493: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 471 array [33].
Page 497 and 498: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 475 q max,
Page 499 and 500: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 477 If r 1
Page 501 and 502: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 479 r i Med
Page 503 and 504: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 481 When θ
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Page 507 and 508: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 485 q i q i
Page 509 and 510: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 487 For lar
Page 511 and 512: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 489 on a co
Page 513 and 514: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 491 gleaned
Page 515 and 516: OPTICS OF CONCENTRATORS 493 Solar c
Page 517 and 518: CURRENT CONCENTRATOR ACTIVITIES 495
Page 523 and 524: REFERENCES 501 11. Boes E, “Photo
Page 525 and 526: REFERENCES 503 60. Uematsu T et al.
Page 527 and 528: 506 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR C
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524 AMORPHOUS SILICON-BASED SOLAR C
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13 Cu(InGa)Se 2 Solar Cells William
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INTRODUCTION 569 CdS. The latter en
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 571 Even though
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 573 800 d 785 T
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 575 3.2 x = 0.2
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES 577 1µm Figure
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DEPOSITION METHODS 579 though other
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DEPOSITION METHODS 581 much higher
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DEPOSITION METHODS 583 in the tempe
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 585 f
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 587 0
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 589 T
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JUNCTION AND DEVICE FORMATION 591 d
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DEVICE OPERATION 593 the voltage. F
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DEVICE OPERATION 595 1.0 0.8 500 80
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DEVICE OPERATION 597 1.4 V OC [Volt
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DEVICE OPERATION 599 13.5.3 The Cu(
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DEVICE OPERATION 601 Table 13.5 Hig
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 603 can well f
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 605 P1 P1 Mo G
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MANUFACTURING ISSUES 607 Finally, f
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THE Cu(InGa)Se 2 OUTLOOK 609 active
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REFERENCES 611 With all these chall
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REFERENCES 613 81. Stolt L, Hedstr
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REFERENCES 615 168. Fahrenbruch A,
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14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells Br
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INTRODUCTION 619 In contrast to p/n
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CdTe PROPERTIES AND THIN-FILM FABRI
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 631 orie
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 633 14.3
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 635 CdTe
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 639 800
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 645 forw
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 647 30 R
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CdTe THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS 649 The
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CdTe MODULES 651 14.4 CdTe MODULES
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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THE FUTURE OF CdTe-BASED SOLAR CELL
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REFERENCES 657 This chapter has sho
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REFERENCES 659 60. Wei S, Mtg. Reco
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REFERENCES 661 152. McCandless B, Q
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15 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells Kohji
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INTRODUCTION TO DYE-SENSITIZED SOLA
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 679 alko
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DSSC FABRICATION (η = 8%) 681 15.2
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 683 of highly effi
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 685 HOOC COOH HOOC
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 687 photosensitize
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NEW DEVELOPMENTS 689 of these ionic
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APPROACH TO COMMERCIALIZATION 691 1
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Institute and reference Table 15.3
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SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS 695 Chemicals
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REFERENCES 697 4. Dare-Edwards M et
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REFERENCES 699 96. Tennakone K, Kum
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16 Measurement and Characterization
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 703 Spectral
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λ [nm] Table 16.3 AM0 standard sol
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171.5 7.01E − 1 372.5 1074 573.5
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228.5 52.940 429.5 1501 630.7 1682
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288.5 328.400 489.5 1994 689.1 1506
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 713 The extra
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 715 of about
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 717 Energy [W
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RATING PV PERFORMANCE 719 16.2.4 Tr
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CURRENT VERSUS VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
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MODULE QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICAT
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REFERENCES 747 REFERENCES 1. Emery
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REFERENCES 749 62. Standard IEC 608
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REFERENCES 751 130. Dondero R, Zirk
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17 Photovoltaic Systems Klaus Preis
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PV POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND A
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 785 NASA
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 787 volta
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 789 well
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 791 A sig
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COMPONENTS FOR PV SYSTEMS 793 In st
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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC
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REFERENCES 797 CL Controllable load
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18 Electrochemical Storage for Phot
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GENERAL CONCEPT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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TYPICAL OPERATION CONDITIONS OF BAT
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Table 18.4 Overview of the technica
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INVESTMENT AND LIFETIME COST CONSID
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CONCLUSION 859 This example is just
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REFERENCES 861 10. Ruddell A et al.
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19 Power Conditioning for Photovolt
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CONTROLLERS AND MONITORING SYSTEMS
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INVERTERS 881 19.2 INVERTERS 19.2.1
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INVERTERS 883 Current [A] MPP Power
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INVERTERS 885 S1 S3 DC source AC ou
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INVERTERS 887 V PV V load t 0 t 1 t
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INVERTERS 889 The resulting voltage
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INVERTERS 891 12 V 24 V 48 V 96 V 1
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INVERTERS 893 U DC voltage level U
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INVERTERS 895 100 55 Hz 50 Hz Frequ
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INVERTERS 897 S1 L C 1 C 2 AC outpu
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INVERTERS 899 Time delay Seconds Mi
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INVERTERS 901 Separated part of the
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REFERENCES 903 5. Gonzalez G, Hill
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906 ENERGY COLLECTED AND DELIVERED
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972 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEMS
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1000 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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1002 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PV SYSTEM
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22 PV in Architecture Tjerk H. Reij
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INTRODUCTION 1007 Figure 22.2 Integ
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1009 Figure 22.4
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PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1013 Heat load a
Page 1043 and 1044:
PV IN ARCHITECTURE 1015 • aesthet
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Page 1047 and 1048:
Page 1049 and 1050:
Page 1051 and 1052:
Page 1053 and 1054:
Page 1055 and 1056:
BIPV BASICS 1027 22.3.1.2 Categorie
Page 1057 and 1058:
BIPV BASICS 1029 Figure 22.34 Alute
Page 1059 and 1060:
BIPV BASICS 1031 Figure 22.38 Solgr
Page 1061 and 1062:
BIPV BASICS 1033 Figure 22.42 Canop
Page 1063 and 1064:
BIPV BASICS 1035 cooling as possibl
Page 1065 and 1066:
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
Page 1067 and 1068:
STEPS IN THE DESIGN PROCESS WITH PV
Page 1069 and 1070:
REFERENCES 1041 REFERENCES 1. Reije
Page 1071 and 1072:
23 Photovoltaics and Development Jo
Page 1073 and 1074:
ELECTRICITY AND DEVELOPMENT 1045 pe
Page 1075 and 1076:
BREAKING THE CHAINS OF UNDERDEVELOP
Page 1077 and 1078:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1049 was too exp
Page 1079 and 1080:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1051 Basic light
Page 1081 and 1082:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1053 (for a deta
Page 1083 and 1084:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1055 issued by t
Page 1085 and 1086:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1057 Needless to
Page 1087 and 1088:
THE PV ALTERNATIVE 1059 exports bal
Page 1089 and 1090:
FOUR EXAMPLES OF PV RURAL ELECTRIFI
Page 1091 and 1092:
Page 1093 and 1094:
Page 1095 and 1096:
Page 1097 and 1098:
REFERENCES 1069 standard of living
Page 1099 and 1100:
REFERENCES 1071 36. Martinot E et a
Page 1101 and 1102:
1074 FINANCING PV GROWTH 1995 : The
Page 1103 and 1104:
1076 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.2.3 Cap
Page 1105 and 1106:
1078 FINANCING PV GROWTH can range
Page 1107 and 1108:
1080 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.2 Typ
Page 1109 and 1110:
1082 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.4.5 Exa
Page 1111 and 1112:
1084 FINANCING PV GROWTH Such PV sy
Page 1113 and 1114:
1086 FINANCING PV GROWTH approved a
Page 1115 and 1116:
1088 FINANCING PV GROWTH Ghana: ren
Page 1117 and 1118:
1090 FINANCING PV GROWTH Table 24.3
Page 1119 and 1120:
1092 FINANCING PV GROWTH with succe
Page 1121 and 1122:
1094 FINANCING PV GROWTH 24.8.2 Dir
Page 1123 and 1124:
1096 FINANCING PV GROWTH using a 40
Page 1125 and 1126:
1098 FINANCING PV GROWTH Current do
Page 1127 and 1128:
1100 FINANCING PV GROWTH 3503 RE Ut
Page 1129 and 1130:
1102 FINANCING PV GROWTH was capita
Page 1131 and 1132:
1104 FINANCING PV GROWTH Policy and
Page 1133 and 1134:
1106 FINANCING PV GROWTH E-mail: We
Page 1135 and 1136:
1108 FINANCING PV GROWTH Triodos Ba
Page 1137 and 1138:
1110 FINANCING PV GROWTH Contact: G
Page 1139 and 1140:
1112 FINANCING PV GROWTH Phone: 94
Page 1141 and 1142:
1114 FINANCING PV GROWTH Fax: 91 11
Page 1143 and 1144:
Index Index Terms Links A a-Si see
Page 1145 and 1146:
Index Terms Links III-V multijuncti
Page 1147 and 1148:
Index Terms Links module temperatur
Page 1149 and 1150:
Index Terms Links CdTe modules 651
Page 1151 and 1152:
Index Terms Links early demonstrati
Page 1153 and 1154:
Index Terms Links crystalline silic
Page 1155 and 1156:
Index Terms Links daily irradiation
Page 1157 and 1158:
Index Terms Links module fabricatio
Page 1159 and 1160:
Index Terms Links electricity produ
Page 1161 and 1162:
Index Terms Links extensive variabl
Page 1163 and 1164:
Index Terms Links lattice matching
Page 1165 and 1166:
Index Terms Links heat load and day
Page 1167 and 1168:
Index Terms Links intensive variabl
Page 1169 and 1170:
Index Terms Links chemistry 827 828
Page 1171 and 1172:
Index Terms Links Meteosat weather
Page 1173 and 1174:
Index Terms Links thin-film silicon
Page 1175 and 1176:
Index Terms Links energy collection
Page 1177 and 1178:
Index Terms Links powerguard flat-r
Page 1179 and 1180:
Index Terms Links rooftop PV genera
Page 1181 and 1182:
Index Terms Links Siemens Solar Bor
Page 1183 and 1184:
Index Terms Links Sofrel flat-roof
Page 1185 and 1186:
Index Terms Links Solar Terrestrial
Page 1187 and 1188:
Index Terms Links SunPower Corporat
Page 1189 and 1190:
Index Terms Links surface texture 3
Page 1191:
Index Terms Links waferin 223 224 2
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