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NOTES potest. Concerning the relationship between theft and robbery cf. H. Niederländer, ‘Die Entwicklung des furtum und seine etymologischen Ableitungen’, ZRG 67, 1950, 185–260, esp. 228ff. 5 E.g., Tryph. Dig. 16.3.31.1: . . . exempli loco latro spolia quae mihi abstulit posuit apud Seium etc. Ulp. Dig. 17.2.54.4: . . . alter ex his ad merces comparandas profectus in latrones incidit suamque pecuniam perdidit etc. 6 Call. Dig. 48.19.28.10: Grassatores, qui praedae causa id faciunt, proximi latronibus habentur. Et si cum ferro adgredi et spoliare instituerunt, capite puniuntur, utique si saepius atque in itineribus hoc admiserunt: ceteri in metallum dantur vel in insulas relegantur. 7 Marc. Dig. 48.19.11.2. 8 Call. Dig. 48.19.28.15: Famosos latrones in his locis, ubi grassati sunt, furca figendos compluribus placuit, ut et conspectu deterreantur alii ab isdem facinoribus et solacio sit cognatis et adfinibus interemptorum eodem loco poena reddita, in quo latrones homicidia fecissent: nonnulli etiam ad bestias damnaverunt. 9 Seneca, De ira 3.19.2: Cum latrocinia tenebris abscondi soleant, animadversiones quo notiores sunt plus in exemplum emendationemque proficiant. 10 Suet. Calig. 30.2: qui postularent, Tetrinios esse. 11 Modest. Dig. 49.1.6 pr.: Constitutiones, quae de recipiendis nec non appellationibus loquuntur, ut nihil novi fiat, locum non habent in eorum persona, quos damnatos statim puniri publice interest: ut sunt insignes latrones vel seditionem concitatores vel duces factionum. 12 Marc. Dig. 48.13.4.2; cf. Call. Dig. 48.19.27.2. On this see Bellen, Sklavenflucht, 13f. and n. 66. Van Hooff, ‘Ancient Robbers’ 107. 13 Ulp. Dig. 4.3.1.3. For dolus bonus cf. A. Wacke, ‘Circumscribere, gerechter Preis und die Arten der List’, ZRG 94, 1977, (184–246) 221ff. 14 In the case of Cn. Domitius Corbulo, who in ad 46 brought down Gannascus of the Canninefates by deception, Tacitus emphasises that the use of trickery against a deserter and a violator of his faith was not dishonourable (Ann. 11.19.2: nec inritae aut degeneres insidiae fuere adversus transfugam et violatorem fidei). Gannascus was a renegade Roman auxiliary who, with Chaucian vessels, had undertaken plundering raids along the Gallic coast. 15 Gai. Dig. 9.2.4 pr. Coll. 10.7.4 = Paul. Sent. 2. On this cf. A. Wacke, ‘Notwehr und Notstand bei der Aquilischen Haftung. Dogmengeschichtliches über Selbstverteidigung und Aufopferung’, ZRG 106, 1989, 469–501. 16 Marc. Dig. 47.16.1 pr. Saturn. Dig. 48.19.6 pr. 17 Menand. Dig. 49.16.5.8. 18 For this formulation, reconstructed from the edict of the praetor Lucullus of 76 bc, see the study of U. Ebert, Die Geschichte des Edikts de hominibus armatis coactisve, Heidelberg 1968. 19 Pompon. Dig. 50.16.118 pr.: ‘Hostes’ hi sunt, qui nobis aut quibus nos publice bellum decrevimus: ceteri ‘latrones’ aut ‘praedones’ sunt. Cf. Ulp. Dig. 49.15.24 pr.: Hostes sunt, quibus bellum publice populus Romanus decrevit vel ipso populo Romano: ceteri latrunculi vel praedones appellantur. A distinction between bella and latrocinia is also drawn by Seneca in his consolation for Marcia (Ad Marc. 18.8). 20 Mommsen, Strafrecht (n. 2), 629, n. 4. 21 Ulp. Dig. 32.1 pr.; 49.15.24 pr. Cf. also Marc. Dig. 28.1.13 pr. 171
BANDITS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 22 CIL XI 4639 = ILS 3001 = L. Schumacher, Römische Inschriften, Stuttgart 1988, 133f. no. 62. For defixio cf. L. Schumacher, Servus index. Sklavenverhör und Sklavenanzeige im republikanischen und kaiserzeitlichen Rom (Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei 15), Wiesbaden 1983, 136–40. 23 J. Bleicken, Verfassungs- und Sozialgeschichte des Römischen Kaiserreiches, vol. II 2 , Paderborn 1981, 67f. Cf. also M. Rostovtzeff, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft im römischen Kaiserreich, vol. I, Leipzig 1929, 122, and likewise G. Alföldy, The Social History of Rome, London/Sydney 1985, for outbreaks of banditry as particular symptoms of crisis (e.g., 173f., 181, 211) and not as everyday occurrences even in periods of tranquillity. In this respect it is telling that in the index to K. Christ’s Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit (Munich 1988) there is no mention of key words such as latrones, robbers, bandits and pirates. Likewise, in his text, latrones are touched on occasionally – thus 346f.; 364 (Maternus); 609; 614 (Bulla Felix) – but without consideration of the significance of the phenomenon in Roman imperial history. 24 Vell. 2.126.3: Diffusa in orientis occidentisque tractus et quidquid meridiano aut septentrione finitur, pax Augusta per omnis terrarum orbis angulos a latrociniorum metu servat immunes. (Trans. Shipley, Loeb) On this cf. G. Alföldy, ‘La politique provinciale de Tibère’, Latomus 24, 1965, (824–44) 826f. 25 Sen. Clem. 1.4.2. Phil. Leg. ad Gai. 145f.; cf. Flacc. 11. Plin. Nat. 14.2. Epict. 3.13.9; cf. 4.1.4; Plut. Mor. 469E. Ael. Arist. Or. 26.30; 66f.; 70; 100. Veget. 4.31. 26 For the ideology of the pax Augusta cf. the works on the Ara Pacis Augustae cited by D. Kienast, Augustus. Prinzeps und Monarch, Darmstadt 1982, 199; also Christ, Kaiserzeit (n. 23), 169. A. Demandt, Der Idealstaat. Die politischen Theorien der Antike, Cologne 1993, 261–5. H.W. Benario, ‘Tacitus’ view of the empire and the Pax Romana’, ANRW II 33.5, 1991, 3332–53. E. Dinkler, E. v. Schubert-Dinkler, s.v. Friede, RAC VIII, 1972, 434–505. G. Woolf, ‘Roman Peace’, in J. Rich, G. Shipley, eds, War and Society in the Roman World, London 1993, 171–94. 27 Pekáry, Seditio. The extension to the Severan period is provided by Sünskes Thompson, Aufstände; for the late Empire see MacMullen, Enemies, Chs V, VI and appendices A, B. 28 For a more sober appreciation see e.g., F. Millar, ‘The World of the Golden Ass’, JRS 71, 1981, (63–75) 66; idem, ‘Italy and the Roman Empire: Augustus to Constantine’, Phoenix 40, 1986, (295–318) 310ff. Drexhage, ‘Einbruch, Diebstahl und Straßenraub’ 316f. Krause, Gefängnisse 24–6; 92–7. 29 Shaw, ‘Bandits’ 9. 30 Gai. Dig. 13.6.18 pr.: in rebus commodatis talis diligentia praestanda est, qualem quisque diligentissimus pater familias suis rebus adhibet, ita ut tantum eos casus non praestet, quibus resisti non possit, veluti mortes servorum quae sine dolo et culpa eius accidunt, latronum hostiumve incursus, piratarum insidias, naufragium, incendium, fugas servorum qui custodiri non solent etc. 31 On vis maior see now U. Doll, Von der vis maior zur höheren Gewalt. Geschichte und Dogmatik eines haftungsentlastenden Begriffs, Frankfurt-am-Main 1989; in particular, for the passage of Gaius cited here, see 65ff. 32 Ulp. Dig. 17.2.52.3; 19.2.9.4. Paul. Dig. 17.1.26.6; 42.5.12.2; Herm. Dig. 26.7.5 pr. Maec. Dig. 35.2.30 pr. Caracalla, Cod. Iust. 4.65.1. Severus Alexander, Cod. Iust. 4.24.2; 4.34.1; Diocletian und Maximian, Cod. Iust. 5.31.8. Iustinian, Cod. Iust. 6.46.6. Inst. Iust. 3.14.2. 33 Herm. Dig. 26.7.50 pr. 34 Ulpian according to Vivianus, Dig. 21.1.17.3 (for the passage see also Bellen, Sklavenflucht 40). Paul. Dig. 49.16.14 pr. 35 Cf. also Shaw, ‘Bandits’ 8. 172
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