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NOTES 143 B.D. Shaw, ‘Fear and Loathing: The Nomad Menace and Roman Africa’, Revue de l’Université d’Ottawa 52, 1982, (25–46) 38, questions the historicity of the desertion. In his view, Tacfarinas and his men were called up by the Roman army for military duties and, after their demobilisation, were never employed again. They then scraped a living as bandits. This is possible but without further proof is unproveable. In any case, from the Roman point of view – of crucial importance for this study since it alone determines what a bandit was – Tacfarinas was considered a deserter. 144 W. Seston, s.v. Fahnenflucht, RAC VII, 1969, 284–6. J. Rüpke, Domi militiae (n. 47), 79f. M. Vallejo Girvés, ‘Sobre la persecucion y el castigo a los desertores en el ejercito de Roma’, Polis 5, 1993, 241–51. 145 Menand. Dig. 49.16.5.1ff. 146 Menand. Dig. 49.16.4.14: levius itaque delictum emansionis habetur, ut erronis in servis, desertionis gravius, ut in fugitivis. The parallel between soldiers and slaves is also to be seen in the practice of branding, intended to discourage both desertion and flight. For evidence and discussion of this see Bellen, Sklavenflucht 26. 147 Menand. Dig. 49.16.5 pr.: Non omnes desertores similiter puniendi sunt, sed habetur . . . aliudve quid crimen desertioni adiunxerit etc. 148 Servi fugitivi and deserters as the nuclei of robber-bands occur in Basil. Ep. 268 (ad 377) and Cod. Theod. 7.18.15 = Cod. Iust. 12.45.3 (ad 406); see Bellen, Sklavenflucht 115. 149 E.g., Tac. Ann. 3.20.1: vagi populationes; 3.21.4: spargit bellum, ubi instaretur, cedens ac rursum in terga remeans. 150 Tac. Ann. 3.74.1–3. Wieser, Kleinkrieg (n. 41), 131–41. 151 Tac. Ann. 3.21.1. A decimation was also carried out in a similar situation during the war against Spartacus, see below, p. 69. 152 E. Sander, ‘Das römische Militärstrafrecht’, RhM 103, 1960, (289–319) 290f. 153 Tac. Ann. 2.52.1: eodem anno coeptum in Africa bellum, duce hostium Tacfarinate. Cf. 3.20.1; 4.23.1. 154 Tac. Ann. 4.24.1: cuncti, quibus libertas servitio potior etc. 155 For the occasionally loaded use of the term libertas in Tacitus’ reports of tribal uprisings see E. Koestermann, Cornelius Tacitus, Annalen, Bd. II, Heidelberg 1965, 98 = a commentary on Ann. 4.24.1; Gutsfeld, Römische Herrschaft (n. 1), 57f., esp. n. 198. 156 Tac. Ann. 2.52.1: vagi . . . et latrociniis sueti. 157 Ibid. 4.23.2: quis fortunae inops, moribus turbidus. 158 See also Gutsfeld, Römische Herrschaft (n. 1), 48f.; 51 for Tacitus’ attempt to bring out the danger of the rebellion by means of vague and exaggerated reports of the number and nature of Tacfarinas’ followers. 159 Tac. Germ. 29.3, on the population of the Agri Decumates: levissimus quisque Gallorum et inopia audax. 160 Tac. Hist. 3.47.2: corrupto in spem rapinarum egentissimo quoque; ibid. 3.48.1: praedae cupidine vagum hostem. Cf. below, pp. 150–1. 161 Tac. Hist. 2.8.1f. On the first false Nero see below, pp. 151–3. 162 Tac. Hist. 2.72.2. Cf. below, pp. 139–40. 163 Syme, ‘Tacfarinas’ (n. 130), 120. 164 Gutsfeld, Römische Herrschaft (n. 1), 60–7. 165 Devillers, ‘Le rôle’ (n. 130), 207 (quotation) and passim. 166 Tac. Ann. 2.52.5. 167 Ibid. 3.74.4: sed Tiberius pro confecto interpretatus id (sc. bellum). For the extraordinary act of imperial favour demonstrated in the granting to Iunius Blaesus of an acclamation as imperator, see L. Schumacher, ‘Die imperatorischen Akklamationen der Triumvirn und die auspicia des Augustus’, Historia 34, 1985, (191–222) 218f. 185
BANDITS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE 168 Ibid. 4.23.1f. 169 Ibid. 4.23.2. 170 On this see the inscription published by E. Bartocchini, ‘Dolabella e Tacfarinate in una iscrizione di Lepti Magna’, Epigraphica 20, 1958, 3–13: Victoriae / [A]u[gu]stae / P. Cornelius / Dolabella cos. / VII vir ep[ul.] so/da[li]s [Ti]t[tiens] pro/cos. occiso T[acfa]/rinate p[o]s[uit]. 171 Tac. Ann. 4.26.1. 172 Tac. Ann. 2.52.3: haud spernenda natio. 173 Tac. Ann. 3.73.1; 4.23.2. 174 Tac. Ann. 4.13.3. 175 Tac. Ann. 3.73.1. 176 Tac. Ann. 3.73.2. 177 Ibid. 178 Contra, though in my opinion not convincing, Koestermann, Annalen (n. 155), I 561 = commentary on Ann. 3.73.2, according to whose impression Tacitus was ‘without doubt . . . profoundly influenced by the emperor’s decisive intervention’. 179 Tac. Ann. 3.40– 46. Vell. 2.129.3. Stein, s.v. Iulius Nr. 238 (Florus), RE X, 1919, 589. Idem, s.v. Iulius Nr. 452 (Sacrovir), loc. cit. 796–8. H. Heinen, Trier und das Trevererland in römischer Zeit, Trier 1985, 56–60; 391f. (bibliography). P. Herz, ‘Der Aufstand des Iulius Sacrovir (21 n. Chr.). Gedanken zur römischen Politik in Gallien und ihren Lasten’, Laverna 3, 1992, 42–93. 180 Tac. Ann. 3.40.2: Nobilitas ambobus et maiorum bona facta, eoque Romana civitas olim data, cum id rarum nec nisi virtuti pretium esset. 181 Tac. Ann. 4.18.1: Sacrovirianum bellum. 182 Ibid. 3.44.2. 183 Ibid. 3.46.4; cf. the commentary of Koestermann, Annalen (n. 155), I 506. 3 LEADERS OF SLAVE REVOLTS AS LATRONES 1 For the chance of becoming a bandit as a particular incentive for slaves to run away see Bellen, Sklavenflucht 143ff.; for herdsmen see Shaw, ‘Der Bandit’ 354f. and above, p. 36; for soldiers see Shaw, ‘Der Bandit’ 352–4, and p. 50 and pp. 125–6, 128. 2 On this see, for example, Varro Rust. 2.10.1–6. 3 Diod. 34/35.2.2; 2.27. Varro Rust. 1.17.3. Strab. 6.2.6 p. 273. Ioh. Ant. frg. 61, FHG IV 559f. M. Capozza, ‘Il brigantaggio nelle fonti della prima rivolta servile siciliana’, AIV 133, 1974/75, 27–40, analyses the relevant evidence and comes to the following conclusion (p. 37): Brigandage, an independent act by slaves in Strabo, in John of Antioch appears, however, as an institution created and ratified by their masters (kurioi). In Diodorus occur both versions: leisteia is born of herdsmen, but in consequence of the refusal of their masters to provide them with the basic necessities of life and their proposal that they should obtain these by robbery. As a result, she suggests that it was in fact the great landowners of Sicily who were responsible for the banditry of their slaves. Basically the same view is upheld by Bradley, Slavery and Rebellion 50–4. 4 Callistr. Dig. 48.19.28.15. See above, pp. 15–16. 5 Hoben, Terminologische Studien 17ff.; 40ff. 6 Cf. I. Opelt, Die lateinischen Schimpfwörter und verwandte sprachliche Erscheinungen. Eine Typologie, Heidelberg 1965, 132f. 7 Hoben, Terminologische Studien 17. 8 Cf. e.g., Diod. 34/35.2.2; 2.27–30. 186
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