Volume Two - Academic Conferences

Li Zhong Zhang
results from the analyses form the basis for subsequent design phase. A statement on intended
learning outcomes and learning goals along with the description of intended target audience forms the
most significant deliverable at this phase.
2.2 Design phase
This phase provides the bulk of the work in instructional design, comprises of a series of design
decisions on various aspects of content (what to learn) and learning (how to learn). The deliverables
at this phase include statements on learning objectives, content outline, learning strategies, learning
tasks, learning media, assessment methods and criteria, course and programme evaluation methods.
The height of this phase is at designing learning strategies. The designer needs to be familiar with
various learning theoretical frameworks for pedagogical considerations as well as with various
learning technologies available for deploying in the learning setting. The perspectives and
considerations of the two areas will be discussed in more details in the next sections.
3. Pedagogy: Perspectives and considerations
This section of the paper attempts to review and present the various theories of learning in two broad
perspectives, the instructive and constructive paradigms.
3.1 Instructive paradigms
Examples of learning theories associated with these paradigms include behavourism and cognitivism.
Some of the underlying beliefs are that the environment constitutes as an important determinant in
learning, in which knowledge exists outside of learners, and learning occurs when this knowledge is
transmitted or input from the environment to the learners. Another fundamental belief is the focus on
instruction or teaching, in which the learning content and tasks are to be broken into smaller units and
organized by the teacher and then delivered to the learners (Chou, 2008; Pachler and Daly, 2011). A
distinct departure of cognitivism from behavourism lies in the assumption of internal processes within
learner when learning occurs. Therefore, it advocates learning strategies that direct attention for
facilitating information encoding, decoding and retrieving in a learner from short and long term
memory. This approach can be applied in designing technology-based instruction by using cognitive
mapping, associative learning, motivational graphics, animation, sound, and visual presentations to
aid in recall and learning
Instructive learning environments are generally teacher-centered or instructor-led, structured and
prescriptive, teacher is viewed as the content or information provider, learners are passive recipients
of information and content, and content is viewed as the ‘king’, a central part of the learning. Practice
and feedback are deemed as part of learning.
Formal education and training, traditional classroom teaching and majority of online and technologybased
learning, have largely reflected this instructive approach.
3.2 Constructive paradigms
There are many variations of constructivism. Examples of learning theories associated with the
paradigms included in the discussion are constructivism, social constructivism, and situated learning.
Constructive learning environments are characterized as being learner-centered, less prescriptive,
teacher is viewed as the facilitator or guide in the learning, learners are actively involved in the
construction of knowledge, with emphasis on processes of learning such as problem solving,
evaluation of information resources. Learning is deemed as contextual and social. Knowledge is
perceived as being meaningfully constructed and not via transmission or reproduction. A learner is
viewed as an active agent in the learning process. Situated learning stresses that learning is greatly
enhanced when it is situated in meaningful and authentic contexts (Lim, 2008; Kirkwood, 2009).
In this paradigm of learning, learners are responsible for seeking, interpreting and constructing
meanings and understandings based on individual experiences and evolved beliefs which are tied to
their social and cultural contexts. Also authentic group-based learning activities aid in providing
opportunities for more knowledge construction via multiple perspectives and interaction.
887