Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals (Sixth Edition) - UMK ...

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Chapter 27 Clinical Biochemistry in Toxicology Kurt V. Kreutzer Department of Biomedical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri James R. Turk Department of Biomedical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri Stan W. Casteel Medical Diagnostic Laboratory College of Veterinary Medicine University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri I. INTRODUCTION II. HEPATOTOXICITY III. NEPHRO TOXICITY IV. TOXINS AFFECTING SKELETAL AND CARDIAC MUSCLE V. TOXINS AFFECTING THE LUNG AND RESPIRATORY TRACT VI. TOXINS AFFECTING THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT VII. TOXINS AFFECTING ERYTHROCYTES AND THE HEMATOPOIETIC SYSTEM VIII. TOXINS AFFECTING HEMOGLOBIN AND OXIDATIVE METABOLISM IX. TOXINS AFFECTING THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM X. TOXINS AFFECTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM XI. TOXINS AFFECTING THE INTEGUMENT REFERENCES I . INTRODUCTION The availability of accurate historical information including a list of the animal species affected, clinical signs, toxins suspected, potential route of exposure, vehicle, relative amount, and timing of exposure is often a limiting factor in the diagnosis of toxic disease. This information permits the diagnostician to make a rational selection of samples and tests to be performed by considering the known target organs of the toxins suspected. Unfortunately, this information is often unavailable during the initial stages of an intoxication. In the absence of such detailed history, the identification of target organs using clinical biochemistry may help clinicians to create a list of potential toxins retrospectively. There are species differences in the most useful biochemical markers of organ-specific cellular injury and in the susceptibility to various toxins ( Kramer and Hoffmann, 1997 ). For this reason, the following discussion is organized on an organ system and species basis. Neither bacterial toxins nor hereditary disease predisposing to intoxication will be discussed. II . HEPATOTOXICITY Many toxins induce hepatic injury (Table 27-1 ). The susceptibility of the liver to toxic insult is in part a consequence of its location between the digestive tract and the rest of the body and the central role it plays in biotransformation and disposition of xenobiotics ( Miyai, 1991 ; Snyder, 1979 ). Extrahepatic metabolism of toxins by mixed function oxidases may affect the target organ and potential hepatotoxicity of a given xenobiotic ( Gram et al. , 1986 ). A variety of factors including the induction of these enzyme systems by drugs ( Snyder, 1979 ) and suppression of enzyme activity by infectious agents and cytokines ( Monshouwer et al. , 1995 ) may modify the response to a given toxin. Lipophilic compounds tend to be more hepatotoxic than hydrophilic ones because the latter are eliminated by the kidney ( Kelly, 1993 ). Many toxins are hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic, however, and most toxins have multiple target organs. The cytosolic enzyme alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is found in both hepatocytes and skeletal muscle of animals. The dog and cat have high levels of ALT in hepatocytes, making it a useful marker for hepatocellular injury in these species ( Stockham and Scott, 2002 ). The plasma half-life of this enzyme in the dog is estimated to be approximately 60 h. Increased serum levels parallel the magnitude of hepatocellular injury in acute disease. Several days following injury, ALT levels may be spuriously low. Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals, 6th Edition 821 Copyright © 2008, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
822 Chapter | 27 Clinical Biochemistry in Toxicology TABLE 27.1 Hepatotoxins Hepatotoxin Disease Onset Geography Species Affected Aflatoxin B 1 (Aspergillus fl avus) Acute to chronic Worldwide All Agave lecheguilla Acute US, MEX Cp, O Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) Acute Worldwide All Chlorinated hydrocarbons Acute to chronic Worldwide All Copper Acute to chronic Worldwide O, all Compositae Acute AFR, AUS B, O, P Corticosteroids Chronic Worldwide Cn Cresols (pitch) Acute Worldwide P Cycadales Acute to chronic AUS, FL, PRDOM REP B, O Cylcopiazonic acid ( Penicillium cyclopium ) Acute to chronic UK B, E, O Dimethylnitrosamine Acute to chronic Worldwide B, Cn, F, O Ethanol Acute to chronic Worldwide All Fumonisin ( Fusarium moniliforme ) Chronic Worldwide B, E, O, P Gossypol (cottonseed) Acute to chronic Worldwide B, Cp, E, O, P Hymenoxys odorata (bitterweed) Acute to chronic US O Indospicine ( Indigofera spp.) Acute to chronic AUS B, Cn, E Iron Acute Worldwide P, E Karwinskia humboldtiana (coyotillo) Acute to chronic MEX, TX B, Cp, O Kochia scoparia (fireweed) Chronic US B Lantana camara Chronic AUS, AFR, MEX, US B, O, E Mebendazole Acute Worldwide Cn Moldy hay Chronic US B Myoporaceae Acute to chronic AUS, NZ B, O Nolina texana (sacahuiste) Chronic US B, Cp, O Petroleum Acute Worldwide All Phalloidin ( Amanita ) Acute Worldwide All Phomopsin (mycotoxin on lupines) Acute to chronic AUS, US B, O Phenytoin/primidone Chronic Worldwide Cn Phosphorus Acute Worldwide All Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Chronic Worldwide B, Cp, E, O, P Ricinus communis (castor bean) Acute Worldwide All Rubratoxins (Penicillium rubrum) Acute to chronic Worldwide B, CN, E, F Sawfly larvae Acute AUS, DENMARK B, Cp, O Solanaceae Acute AFR, AUS S AM, US B, Cp, O Sporidesmin ( Pithomyces chartarum) Chronic AUS, AFR, NZ B, O Tannic acid ( Quercus spp., oaks) Acute Worldwide B, Cp, E, O Terminalia oblongata (yellowwood) Acute to chronic AUS B, O Tetradymia spp. (rabbit/horsebrush) Chronic US B, Cp, O Trema aspera (poison peach) Acute AUS B Trifolium hybridum (Alsike clover) Chronic Worldwide B, E, O Xanthium strumarium (Cocklebur) Acute US B, P Abbreviations: B, bovine; Cn, canine; Cp, caprine; E, equine; F, feline; O, ovine; P, porcine.
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Preface It has been more than a dec
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viii Contributors Björn P. Meij (5
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2 Chapter | 1 Concepts of Normality
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10 Chapter | 1 Concepts of Normalit
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Chapter 2 Comparative Medical Genet
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I. Introduction 29 Green Red Green
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I. Introduction 31 A1 genetic map d
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I. Introduction 33 of genomes of va
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36 Chapter | 2 Comparative Medical
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46 Chapter | 3 Carbohydrate Metabol
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IX. Disorders of Carbohydrate Metab
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X. Disorders of Ruminants Associate
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X. Disorders of Ruminants Associate
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References 79 Kaneko , J. J. , Luic
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Chapter 4 Lipids and Ketones Michae
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II. Long Chain Fatty Acids 83 FIGUR
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II. Long Chain Fatty Acids 85 Plasm
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IV. Phospholipids 87 The regulation
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V. Cholesterol 89 V. CHOLESTEROL A.
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VI. Lipoproteins 91 TABLE 4-1 Compo
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VI. Lipoproteins 93 TABLE 4-2 Apoli
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96 Chapter | 4 Lipids and Ketones B
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98 Chapter | 4 Lipids and Ketones
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Chapter 5 Proteins, Proteomics, and
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III. Metabolism of Proteins 119 C .
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IV. Plasma Proteins 121 NH 4 HCO
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V. Methodology 123 molecule. The gl
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V. Methodology 125 has occurred wil
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V. Methodology 127 Although attempt
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V. Methodology 129 kD 94 67 43 2 2
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V. Methodology 131 D . Specific Pro
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VI. Normal Plasma and Serum Protein
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VII. Interpretation of Serum Protei
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References 149 Andersson , M. , Ste
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References 151 response of haptoglo
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References 153 dogs with metastasiz
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References 155 Watson , T. D. G. (
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158 Chapter | 6 Clinical Veterinary
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V. Methods for Evaluation of the Im
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VI. Laboratory Diagnosis of Disease
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Chapter 7 The Erythrocyte: Physiolo
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II. Hematopoiesis 175 progenitor ce
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III. Developing Erythroid Cells 177
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IV. Mature RBC 185 immune-mediated
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IV. Mature RBC 187 TABLE 7-3 Erythr
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IV. Mature RBC 189 TABLE 7.5 Erythr
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IV. Mature RBC 191 Echinocyte forma
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IV. Mature RBC 193 Pig RBC isoantig
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IV. Mature RBC 195 occurs in chicke
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IV. Mature RBC 197 inorganic phosph
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IV. Mature RBC 199 (a) FIGURE 7-6 T
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IV. Mature RBC 201 RBC 2,3DPG incre
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IV. Mature RBC 203 mechanisms would
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IV. Mature RBC 205 released during
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IV. Mature RBC 207 reduced by ascor
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V. Determinants of RBC Survival 209
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V. Determinants of RBC Survival 211
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VI. Inherited Disorders of RBCs 213
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described in people. They include a
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References 221 Boas , F. E. , Forma
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References 223 Della Rovere , F. ,
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References 225 Gedde , M. M. , Davi
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References 227 phosphofructokinase-
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References 235 Shadduck , R. K. ( 1
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References 237 Tennant , B. , Dill
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References 239 Williams , D. M. , L
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Chapter 8 Porphyrins and the Porphy
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II. Porphyrins 243 two vinyl groups
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II. Porphyrins 245 TABLE 8-2 Nomenc
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IV. Porphyrias 247 6. Uroporphyrins
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IV. Porphyrias 249 i . Urine It is
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IV. Porphyrias 251 to localize the
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IV. Porphyrias 253 FIGURE 8-6 Metab
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IV. Porphyrias 255 estrogens. The d
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References 257 and hexachlorobenzen
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Chapter 9 Iron Metabolism and Its D
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II. Iron Distribution 261 plasma of
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IV. Plasma Iron Transport 263 pathw
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VI. Iron Metabolism in Cells 265 of
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VI. Iron Metabolism in Cells 267 in
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VII. Tests for Evaluating Iron Meta
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VII. Tests for Evaluating Iron Meta
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VIII. Disorders of Iron Metabolism
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References 279 ( Norrdin et al ., 2
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References 281 Fresco , R. ( 1981 )
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References 283 Moore , C. V. , Duba
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References 285 Weiden , P. L. , Hac
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288 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis TABLE 1
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292 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis The pro
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294 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis exhibit
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298 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis that is
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302 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis However
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304 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis 2. Comp
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306 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis is a re
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308 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis 2. Asse
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310 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis necessi
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312 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis disease
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314 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis concent
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316 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis the rol
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318 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis proport
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320 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis a consi
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322 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis Bakhtia
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324 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis Dowd ,
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326 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis Kier ,
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328 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis Nielsen
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330 Chapter | 10 Hemostasis Tablin
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332 Chapter | 11 Neutrophil Functio
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352 Chapter | 12 Diagnostic Enzymol
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380 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function L
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382 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function e
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384 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function p
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386 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function m
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388 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function s
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390 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function f
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392 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function T
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394 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function 2
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396 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function u
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398 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function 2
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400 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function c
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402 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function F
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404 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function A
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406 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function E
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408 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function K
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410 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function R
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412 Chapter | 13 Hepatic Function W
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414 Chapter | 14 Gastrointestinal F
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Chapter 15 Skeletal Muscle Function
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II. Specialization of the Sarcolemm
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II. Specialization of the Sarcolemm
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III. Heterogeneity of Skeletal Musc
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III. Heterogeneity of Skeletal Musc
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V. Exercise and Adaptations to Trai
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VI. Diagnostic Laboratory Methods f
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VI. Diagnostic Laboratory Methods f
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IX. Selected Neuromuscular Disorder
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IX. Selected Neuromuscular Disorder
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References 479 and, recently, there
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References 481 Engel , A. G. ( 2004
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References 483 Paciello , O. , Maio
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Chapter 16 Kidney Function and Dama
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II. Kidney Morphology and Function
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II. Kidney Morphology and Function
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III. Tests of Kidney Function 491 (
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III. Tests of Kidney Function 493 T
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III. Tests of Kidney Function 495 B
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6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Dog Cat Equine Cattle
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III. Tests of Kidney Function 499 d
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IV. Tests of Kidney Damage 501 1000
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IV. Tests of Kidney Damage 503 and
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IV. Tests of Kidney Damage 505 Enzy
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V. Biochemical Changes in Kidney Di
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V. Biochemical Changes in Kidney Di
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References 511 were reported to occ
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References 513 Bovee , K. C. ( 1969
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References 515 Deguchi , E. , and A
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References 521 Kühl , S. , Mischke
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References 523 creatinine measureme
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Chapter 17 Fluid, Electrolyte, and
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532 Chapter | 17 Fluid, Electrolyte
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VIII. Clinicopathological Indicator
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References 555 plasma water, electr
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References 557 Krzywanek , H. ( 197
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References 559 Strombeck , D. R. (1
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562 Chapter | 18 Pituitary Function
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606 Chapter | 19 Adrenocortical Fun
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624 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function a
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626 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function t
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628 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function A
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630 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function S
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632 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function a
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634 Chapter | 20 Thyroid Function O
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636 Chapter | 21 Clinical Reproduct
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664 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals the
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666 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals the
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668 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals P i
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670 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals be
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Copper Cuproreductase Cytochromes C
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674 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals 2 .
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676 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals Cor
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678 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals inf
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680 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals tis
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682 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals VI
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684 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals red
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686 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals of
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688 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals Per
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692 Chapter | 22 Trace Minerals Liu
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Chapter 23 Vitamins Robert B. Rucke
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 697 TABLE
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 699 Carot
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 701 Major
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 703 doses
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 705 Diet
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 707 conta
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III. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 709 immun
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IV. Water-Soluble Vitamins 711 are
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IV. Water-Soluble Vitamins 713 abil
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IV. Water-Soluble Vitamins 715 5’
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IV. Water-Soluble Vitamins 717 H 2
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IV. Water-Soluble Vitamins 719 Enzy
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722 Chapter | 23 Vitamins When biot
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724 Chapter | 23 Vitamins Cyanocoba
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726 Chapter | 23 Vitamins V . VITAM
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728 Chapter | 23 Vitamins nature, r
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730 Chapter | 23 Vitamins Stites ,
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732 Chapter | 24 Lysosomal Storage
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Chapter 25 Tumor Markers Michael D.
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II. Serum Tumor Markers 753 also be
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III. Flow Cytometry 755 cancer of t
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V. Immunohistochemistry/Immunocytoc
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V. Immunohistochemistry/Immunocytoc
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References 761 analysis will facili
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References 763 Fernandez , N. J. ,
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References 765 Meinecke , B. , and
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References 767 Walter , J. ( 2000 )
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Page 830 and 831: References 837 Solaiman , S. G. , M
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872 Chapter | 28 Avian Clinical Bio
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874 Appendix | I SI Units TABLE E S
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Appendix II Conversion Factors of S
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Appendix IV Stability of Serum Enzy
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Appendix VI Nomogram for Computing
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t0100 Appendix VIII Blood Analyte R
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884 Appendix | VIII Blood Analyte R
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890 Appendix | IX Blood Analyte Ref
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Appendix X Blood Analyte Reference
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Appendix XI Blood Analyte Reference
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Appendix XII Urine Analyte Referenc
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902 Appendix | XIII Cerebrospinal F
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904 Appendix | XIV Cerebrospinal Fl
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