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description portrays emotions as invariant, universal, categories. It was also clear that
emotions are recognised differently in different countries.
In the discussion on fear it was also apparent that emotion as a range of
awareness is not uniquely human. Ifemotion is so much older than language, how does
language express emotion? Emotion is the primary feature of the relationship of other
species e.g. primates; therefore emotion precedes language.
THE HIERARCHICAL NATURE OF REFERENCE
Words in a language are used to refer to objects and relationships. Deacon
(1997) mentions three kinds ofreference as distinguished by the American philosopher
Charles Sanders Pierce. These are iconic, indexical and symbolic reference. An icon is
something that bears a resemblence to the object e.g. a picture or portrait ofsomething.
Here we are talking of similarity. An indexical relationship means there is a physical or
temporal connection between the sign and the object. For example, a bad odour might
indicate the presence of a skunk. According to Deacon (1997) most animal
communication has this quality. Symbolic reference means a social agreement was
established that links one thing to the other. For example, a wedding ring symbolises
agreement or marriage. The objects are intrinsically icons, indices or symbols. They are
only interpreted to be so. This is the human level ofreference.
The difference between the three modes of reference relates to the three levels
of interpretation. This means that reference is arranged in a hierarchical or ascending
order. A prior level must be understood before a higher level can be understood. Or this
means a simpler form must be understood before a more complex one can be
understood. The understanding can also occur in a descending order i.e. even if
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