3071-The political economy of new slavery

Krishna Upadhyaya 127
practices exist in the western hills of Nepal. Usually, the dalits, who are
haliya (ploughmen), work to repay their loan. Debt-bondage in those
areas, however, is not recognized by the government of Nepal. So far,
non-governmental organizations have not carried out labour surveys
among the dalits, preferring to concentrate their resources on other
types of abuse and discrimination against dalits in general.
Rural industry
Among the major rural industries which employ bonded labour are
plantations and industries allied to agriculture, such as rice mills,
together with silk farming, carpet weaving and the processing of fish
and seafood. Here, bonded labour is of the ‘new’ form, and looks more
like a business relationship. Often, labourers are employed through
contractors, with variations in the type of loan arrangement and the
type of work undertaken.
In India, bonded labour is used in various fish-processing industries
in states such as Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharastra and
West Bengal (ASI, 2002b). It is chiefly single women who are employed
in this way, and their vulnerability increases with time. Their freedom of
movement is curtailed and the employers can control them more easily.
They are forced to work, undermining labour standards and human
rights such as leisure, working-hour provisions and minimum wage.
Nationwide studies in such export-related and export-potential productions
may reveal further issues of this nature. There has been plenty
of controversy about the carpet industry in South Asia in connection
with child labour and bonded labour. While, according to Rugmark
Foundation, ethical trading initiatives, concerns of international communities
and efforts to reduce child labour in the industry appear to
have been successful, bonded labour continues to be practised – mainly
in connection with goods for export. The bonded labourers are usually
women and children, in Rajasthan, Bihar, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.
In much the same way, migrant and family bonded labourers are used
in the production of bidi (cigarettes) and tobacco in Andhra Pradesh,
Chattisgad, Maharastra and Tamilnadu. While the extent of the bonded
labour is not known, these industries use considerable numbers of children.
Vedika, a non-governmental organization, has documented cases
of child bonded labour, drawn from local print publications in Kurnool
District of Andhra Pradesh. They show that the children were brought
to work to repay loans taken by their parents from a businessman.
In the district headquarters of Kurnool District, Seenu, a nine-year-old
boy, and Bhuvaneswari, a ten-year-old girl, were found working as bidi