3071-The political economy of new slavery

Jeroen Doomernik 43
far as this would be possible in the first place – governments devise
measures in the legal area and in the enforcement of border control.
What we have not touched upon yet are the consequences.
The smuggling of migrants
Arguably the most significant effect of the one-sided security-based
approach outlined above lies in the rise of a specific type of business
operation: the smuggling and trafficking of human beings (Salt and
Stein, 1997). Simply put: if migrants cannot enter a desired country of
destination under their own steam because of restrictive policies and/ or
border enforcement, they will rely on the help of third parties. And the
more effective migration controls become, the more lucrative smuggling
becomes and the higher the fees that are payable by those who are
smuggled.
By smuggling we mean assisting migrants crossing borders illegally. 8
Describing and analyzing this activity, we should think of a continuum
between extremes rather than an always similar act. Smuggling, for
instance, may occur simply by pointing out where best to cross a border,
but can also take the form of offering extensive travel package deals
from country of origin to country of destination. In the latter case, we
may be looking at organized crime. This is even more likely when we
speak of trafficking. In this case smugglers may perceive migrants as
mere goods to be exploited as lucratively as possible for financial gain,
not merely helping people cross borders but also keeping them in
bondage for a longer period thereafter (Williams, 1999). The term
trafficking is often used in conjunction with women and children as
both categories of persons are the most vulnerable to exploitation, for
example in the sex trade. However, men can also fall prey to traffickers
and end up in sweatshops and other industries dependent on manual
labour.
Whose security?
Receiving states
States have the undisputed right to determine which aliens they let
reside within their jurisdiction; 9 the only exception to this rule deriving
from the Geneva Convention’s non-refoulement clause (Article 33)
which prohibits an alien’s expulsion under certain conditions. 10 This
does not mean that states always enact this right. There are numerous