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# If any of the hosts fail to respond the script will mail # a notification message to you. for i in $hosts; do $ping -c 3 $i >/dev/null 2>&1 if [ $? != 0 ]; then echo $i is down|$mail your@mailaddress-here fi done Although ping is not a glamorous tool in comparison to other network tools, it is flexible (as you can see from the previous examples). When using ping as a standalone tool or in a script, keep in mind that a reachability failure or loss of packets does not automatically indicate that the host is down or there are physical layer problems with one of your gateways or transport links. A failed ping attempt or one with a high level of dropped packets can also indicate a routing problem or an excessive level of network traffic. Traceroute To check the route to the destination host or to verify that all of the gateways in the transit path are up, an additional application, commonly called traceroute, is used. Traceroute, like ping, uses ICMP echo-request messages to trace the gateway path one hop at a time. It accomplishes this by sending three ICMP messages with variable TTL counters. The first ICMP message, which is sent to the host's default gateway, has a TTL of 1. The message is received by the gateway, and it decreases the TTL counter to zero and returns an ICMP host unreachable notification message. Then traceroute sends an ICMP message with a TTL of 2, to reach the next gateway. This process continues, incrementing the TTL by one, each time a successful ICMP host unreachable message is received. This continues until the final destination host is reached. This occurs when the traceroute program receives an ICMP echo_response from the destination host. As traceroute maps the transit path, it displays the gateway (hostname or address) and the round-trip delivery time averages for the ICMP messages sent to each gateway. The output from a UNIX-based traceroute implementation follows: %traceroute www.yahoo.com
traceroute to www.yahoo.com (204.71.200.74), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets 1 enss (192.207.123.1) 4.871 ms 1.988 ms 2.334 ms 2 (137.39.3.89) 6.034 ms 13.311 ms 6.728 ms 3 (146.188.177.134) 5.914 ms 5.232 ms 5.042 ms 4 (146.188.177.149) 6.619 ms 12.762 ms 7.101 ms 5 (206.132.150.129) 7.227 ms 6.767 ms 6.327 ms 6 (206.132.253.97) 6.392 ms 117.242 ms 70.468 ms 7 (206.132.151.22) 133.405 ms 75.601 ms 89.595 ms 8 (206.132.254.41) 239.353 ms 239.590 ms 241.420 ms 9 (208.178.103.58) 291.413 ms * 10 www9.yahoo.com (204.71.200.74) 73.694 ms 68.444 ms 67.123 ms Traceroute is available for UNIX (it is native on some UNIX implementations; for others, it is available as source on the Internet), Windows NT (native), Windows 95/98, and Macintosh (as a shareware add-on), and as part of Cisco IOS. Network Baselining and Problem Identification Network performance baselining is the measurement of key performance aspects of the network's operation. Data collection is done in sampled increments over a fixed period of time so that an accurate picture of the network's traffic flow patterns can be established. The idea is that regular baselining is continuously performed, with comparisons made to previous performance baselines. Ideally, baselining should begin when the network is placed into production. However, baselining can be helpful no matter when you start. The following are just some of the reasons for performing network baselining: • Ensure that your design is suitable for your user requirements. Most data networks grow out of necessity, not planning. A business is started, it moves into office space, it purchases some computers, it needs a LAN, and so on. This is not what is considered to be a designed network. Rather, it's just a collection of computers connected together. A sort of "orange juice can and string" network—you can hear sound (move data) on it, and you are happy. This is a very common approach in the start of new businesses, since networked communication between computers is usually the only design goal. So if it works, that's usually all that matters. • Later on, the business grows and network-dependent applications start to become important to business function that the network's initial reactive design approach begins to show its limitations. Unfortunately, this is also usually the time that a business can least afford any major business disruption, such as a new network implementation or a painful network
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Understanding the Network A Practic
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IOS Authentication and Accounting S
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About the Reviewers These reviewers
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Tell Us What You Think As the reade
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mostly dealt with interconnecting m
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• A short introduction to SNMP Ap
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In theory, a computer network can o
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Coaxial cable has a single solid co
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• Radio transmission—It is achi
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• Baseband transmission applies t
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Ring Topology Figure 1.3. The bus t
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Packets and frames are often used a
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Asynchronous transmission involves
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Figure 1.6. Collision handling unde
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In a ring topology, a token is pass
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Repeaters The repeater was introduc
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the network. If your 50-node networ
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Figure 1.12. A collection of nodes
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their destination, type, and conten
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shop, you are using Novell's Direct
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Figure 1.14. The OSI and Internet r
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Layer 7: Application This layer pro
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end-to-end, sequenced data delivery
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outer, the delivery path might be d
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and network transport is a very imp
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Figure 1.16. The "bottom up" commun
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Chapter 2. The Networker's Guide to
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Internet Society, a nonprofit organ
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• First, it performs translations
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Figure 2.2. The IP header. • Vers
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To assist in the reassembly process
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Figure 2.3. IP address classes comp
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taking the natural mask of the addr
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Classful Subnetting Examples The im
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21 2,000 8,000 255.255.248.0 22 1,0
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classful-based address space model.
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Table 2.6. Classless Network Addres
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NOTE Because CIDR is used for addre
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will connect in the future, it is b
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Routers are also called intermediat
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IP datagrams for which the local ho
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1. The Layer 3 to Layer 2 address m
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3. Router B—Router B receives the
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connected networks. Figure 2.11 ill
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Figure 2.12. A simple regional (ISP
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gw1, gw2, gw4 3 gw1, gw3, gw4 3 gw1
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Dynamic routing might not be requir
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The transport layer as a whole repr
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window to reflect changes in the pa
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The TCP Header The TCP header provi
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53 DNS (Domain Name Service) 67 BOO
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SNMP Simple Network Management Prot
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uses both TCP and UDP for service d
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RFC 974 Mail routing and the domain
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Figure 3.1. Physical versus logical
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Figure 3.2. The AppleTalk protocol
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AppleTalk Address Resolution Protoc
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of 400 microseconds, in addition to
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Along with the SAP, there is a 5-by
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delivery is a best-effort delivery
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• DDP checksum (long header only)
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eachable within the internetwork. T
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information from the router's other
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AppleTalk Update Based Routing Prot
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• type is the service classificat
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application layers. AppleTalk has n
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Figure 3.10. ZIP message formats. E
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Printer Access Protocol Printer Acc
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Figure 3.11. Novell (IPX) protocol
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The other nodes on the network that
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Figure 3.13. IPX datagram format.
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the cumulative information gleaned
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• Hop Count is the number of rout
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Upper Layer Protocols IPX is used t
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Msg.Add.Name Adds a unique name to
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Related RFCs RFC 1001 RFC 1002 RFC
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service enhancement or replacement
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Figure 4.1. The LLC interfaces in r
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it does not provide for error recov
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and smooth pattern flow enables MTL
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cabling, backbone length 800m Categ
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combination of light refraction and
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NOTE Cladding is the glass "shell"
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Ethernet The original Ethernet prot
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UTP telephone cabling infrastructur
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Since the introduction of the IEEE
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In the event that two Ethernet end-
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The 802.3 frame type used in Figure
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• Frame check sequence (4 bytes)
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• Physical layer signaling (PLS)
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cable segment length (for coaxial s
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transmission medium using BNC (Brit
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Figure 4.12. A basic 3-cable 10Base
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Figure 4.14. 10Base-T hub-to-hub in
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Figure 4.16. 10Base-T in a consulta
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• Support for full-duplex operati
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mechanisms, in terms of encoding an
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etween different PHY encoding imple
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100Base Ethernet) is based on the p
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The Gigabit PHY The Gigabit PHY con
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CSMA/CD is sensitive to operating r
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The main advantage of using FDR ove
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have to transmit against the priori
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• Ring timing maintenance—The A
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check the lobe cable. If the lobe t
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Token Ring addresses are expressed
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• Report Active Monitor Error (RA
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they first join the ring or in the
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Figure 4.22. The IBM type 1 MIC con
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FDDI Work on the Fiber Distributed
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However, all this comes at a cost,
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Figure 4.25. FDDI MAC data frame an
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topologies needed for the transmiss
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Chapter 5. WAN Internetworking Tech
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Placing a Call The functional model
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LATAs to provide local exchange ser
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The PSTN was originally designed fo
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sampling rate is 8,000 times per se
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Figure 5.1. A multiplexer from a lo
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Table 5.1. The American (DS) and In
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The M24/D4 frame standard is the ba
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contains consecutive ones and zeros
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• Line loopback/line build-out (L
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process. The T3 multiplexer adds st
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committee. The committee provided t
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The photonic layer defines the elec
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such as T1/E1, FDDI, and others. Th
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SS7 signaling components are connec
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SCCP operates as an OSI-RM Layer 3.
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WAN point-to-point links. It can be
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Figure 5.11. The ISDN protocol refe
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• The R interface acts as a point
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• Flag—This is an 8-bit (011111
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terminals attached to the ISDN swit
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X.25 networks are comprised of four
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Frame Relay, like the ISDN effort i
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• Flag—This functions as a fram
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Figure 5.17. the B-ISDN reference m
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environments is implemented using A
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endpoints. A Virtual Path Link (VPL
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ATM endpoints. The user adaptation
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1. The ATM end-device issues a setu
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Data-Link Framing Point-to-point de
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PPP PPP can provide multiprotocol d
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PPP Framing There are three HDLC fr
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• The HDLC and PPP data-link prot
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Chapter 6. Network Switches In this
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Figure 6.1. Partial and full mesh m
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protocol. Figure 6.3 illustrates th
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All hosts can see the traffic that
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To get a better understanding of th
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Figure 6.5. A bridged LAN with span
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support a path discovery method. So
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or performance limitations, network
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network data encryption, WAN reacha
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The Impact of Switching on Traditio
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• Switch backplane—Also referre
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Switch Port Flow Control In full-du
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In the event that the primary trunk
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Figure 6.9. Layer 2 collision domai
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Figure 6.10. Multiport repeaters an
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Figure 6.11. Distributed and collap
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utilization performance. To calcula
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Ideally, the goal of all switch and
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Cut-through uses the same technolog
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VLANs A switch that supports VLAN p
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MAC Address-Based VLANs Another com
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Figure 6.13. Switches running indep
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The configuration layer uses the Ge
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Layer 2 infrastructures to operate
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need. This method not only allocate
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transmitting and receiving. Without
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ATM-specific applications would be
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ATM private-class switches are comp
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Because both the VPI and VCI are us
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environment. The goal is to have La
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Broadcast and Unknown Server The Br
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Figure 6.15. An LEC and its VCC rel
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ATM hosts are accomplished by estab
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• VLANs • Full-duplex switch po
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Chapter 7. Introduction to Cisco Ro
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The 4000 series routers come in a t
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series routers, this partition can
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need to crimp the CAT 5 strands fol
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Use the cable set to build the cabl
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Step 2. This command specifies whic
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AppleTalk FDDI IPX Token Ring VINES
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The IOS Command Line and Configurat
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disconnect Disconnect an existing n
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changes (user to privileged, for ex
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• Router(config)#hostname test-ro
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or • On 7x00 only, use: • •
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Null Null interface Tunnel Tunnel i
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Router(config)#ip rou? route routin
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Ctrl+P, up arrow Previous command i
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mop Copy from a MOP server (not ava
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Now let's see what is on the PCMCIA
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When copying any file, unless no pr
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Ethernet LANs with a dedicated T1 c
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Compiled Fri 03-Apr-98 07:00 by rna
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172.16.2.0 /25 172.16.2.128 /26 or
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Ridge-GW(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0
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In addition to their native protoco
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D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O -
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Configuring Dumb Terminal Service T
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Ctrl+Shift+6+X suspends a session).
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cornpops|Printer on Cisco termserve
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Concord-GW(config-if)#flowcontrol h
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The AUX port configuration for Ridg
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outer and enter the break sequence
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Setting the conf-reg Value in ROM M
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• Register setting 0x2010—Confi
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8. 9. Router#configure terminal 10.
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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Router#config t Enter configuration
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-#- ED --type----crc--- -seek--nlen
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to xmodem or TFTP (2600 only) an IO
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Mountain Standard Time (MST) -7 Pac
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eference time is BB0FC7AA.95E93186
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in production for a little while. T
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use debug mode often. When using th
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uucp UNIX-to-UNIX copy system IOS a
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Log Management Logs are useless unl
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IOS Authentication and Accounting I
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hostnames (which can be corrected w
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$telnet 192.160.56.5 Trying 192.160
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In this example, the authentication
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makes it easier to configure, becau
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define what authentication type sho
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Caution should be taken when using
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pairs (similar to those used to cre
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• Using rommon and disaster recov
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In the following section, we review
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Deciding to Use a Routing Protocol
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Now, here is the qualifier: Not eve
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If RIP was the routing protocol for
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Distance Vector Protocols All routi
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space) based on a power of 2. Class
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address space), but you would run i
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destination address that falls with
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the different IP address spaces int
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Weaknesses of Static Routing Static
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Today, RIP is considered by some to
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RIP 192.124.32.0 /24 192.124.35.1 3
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All routers on the network keep tra
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RIP's Value Today RIP is old, it's
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• Better reliability—OSPF route
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Figure 8.10. Single- and multi-area
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• Internal routers—These router
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to the backbone. In Figure 8.13, al
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Figure 8.14. OSPF router designatio
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oundary routers. They describe netw
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outer's point of view. The path con
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Autonomous Systems and Exterior Rou
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Figure 8.16. The IGP to ERP handoff
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Figure 8.17. The BGP finite state m
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EGPs have been increasing in popula
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Chapter 9. Advanced Cisco Router Co
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specified ACL number range. Table 9
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default, all traffic is denied. Onl
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asbr-a2#config t Enter configuratio
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trying to build ACLs with the comma
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trace Multicast trace IGMP log Log
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Tftp Trivial File Transfer Protocol
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access-list 100 permit tcp any 172.
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Table 9.5. AppleTalk ACL Filtering
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Figure 9.1. The AnyCo corporate App
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One word of caution: If you plan to
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You can also log hits on ports by a
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Table 9.8. Route-Map Operators for
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exists, a group identifier (which c
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hegel# With this configuration, bec
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NAT is commonly used in a fashion s
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The [prefix-length] or [netmask] se
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NAT's Shortcomings Although NAT is
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NOTE Administrators beware: Tunneli
Page 556 and 557:
connects, the active key informatio
Page 558 and 559:
encapsulation, framing, and line si
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asbr-a2(config-if)#ip address 172.1
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problem if you are provisioning ISD
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22:41:34: %LINK-3-UPDOWN: Interface
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POP mail request is made. Now let's
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leibniz(config-if)#backup interface
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When the primary link fails, the BR
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1.544Mbps. The actual transport lin
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the cost-effective and bandwidth-ef
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interface configuration subcommand
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it is possible to exchange packets
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interface serial0.2 point-to-point
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Figure 9.6. A multipoint FR example
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2. ATM encapsulation must be enable
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are commonly used in large-scale cl
Page 588 and 589:
persephone(config)#interface atm 3/
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• The creation and application of
Page 592 and 593:
Chapter 10. Configuring IP Routing
Page 594 and 595:
After you have a list of requiremen
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Control commands: Displaying
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not active, it is quite common for
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Incoming update filter list for all
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When changing any IP routing behavi
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asbr-a1(config-if)#^Z asbr-a1# When
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For asbr-a2 to reach all the testne
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192.168.160.0/30 is subnetted, 1 su
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order to maintain computability wit
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Configuring Dynamic IGP and EGP IP
Page 614 and 615:
passive-interface s1 By enabling th
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asbr-a1(config-router)#network 12.0
Page 618 and 619:
To verify that the adjusted route m
Page 620 and 621:
The command is a general routing p
Page 622 and 623:
EIGRP, as I'm sure you have guessed
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No matter how the announcement entr
Page 626 and 627:
Incoming update filter list for all
Page 628 and 629:
is adjustable using the router con
Page 630 and 631:
• IOS also supports various debu
Page 632 and 633:
outers: • Backbone Routers—Thes
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process. The router would construct
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e1/1 192.168.9.0 fe0/0 192.168.0.0
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An alternative to this is to use th
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C 192.168.191.0/24 is directly conn
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Link State Age Interval is 00:20:00
Page 644 and 645:
C 192.168.191.0/24 is directly conn
Page 646 and 647:
to asbr-a1 was a remote office that
Page 648 and 649: interface Serial1 ip address 192.16
Page 650 and 651: which to exchange OSPF messages. Th
Page 652 and 653: OSPF Monitoring Commands Throughout
Page 654 and 655: • • • NOTE • will display
Page 656 and 657: Figure 10.4. AURP tunnel interfaces
Page 658 and 659: appletalk glean-packets hostname as
Page 660 and 661: For many users, the usefulness of B
Page 662 and 663: internal/Internet access router whe
Page 664 and 665: externally destined traffic arrives
Page 666 and 667: Routers asbr-a1/a2 and asbr-b1/b2 a
Page 668 and 669: BGP Reflectors An alternative to ha
Page 670 and 671: network 192.168.0.0 mask 255.255.25
Page 672 and 673: dynamic routing protocols are used
Page 674 and 675: Figure 10.8. An example network run
Page 676 and 677: Controlling Redistribution In some
Page 678 and 679: hostname ABR-a57 ! access-list 1 pe
Page 680 and 681: access-list 2 deny 10.0.1.0 access-
Page 682 and 683: Keep in mind that route-maps, li
Page 684 and 685: Chapter 11. Network Troubleshooting
Page 686 and 687: However, the most valuable tool of
Page 688 and 689: • Description of primary function
Page 690 and 691: of cable fault, different CSFSs are
Page 692 and 693: For Windows Systems, check out the
Page 694 and 695: command. On a Windows NT system, us
Page 696 and 697: #Do not change these variables logf
Page 700 and 701: upgrade. So, when the time comes to
Page 702 and 703: throughput over time, instead of si
Page 704 and 705: protocol is the most prone to perfo
Page 706 and 707: NOTE When looking at network broadc
Page 708 and 709: NOTE Another common network error n
Page 710 and 711: and the physical ring segment that
Page 712 and 713: tolerances the frames, timing shift
Page 714 and 715: practical terms, this means that at
Page 716 and 717: etransmissions, however, usually ha
Page 718 and 719: 4. Don't get lost in the big pictur
Page 720 and 721: • Link and services monitoring, n
Page 722 and 723: eports on network utilization, avai
Page 724 and 725: o Bandwidth utilization rates o Rat
Page 726 and 727: and improved management capabilitie
Page 728 and 729: After the supported SNMP version is
Page 730 and 731: Table 11.3. ASN.1 Keywords Used wit
Page 732 and 733: application-wide tags, which are us
Page 734 and 735: TestSequence ::= SEQUENCE { example
Page 736 and 737: The MIB-2 and RMON-MIB modules are
Page 738 and 739: iso.identfied-orgnaization.dod.inte
Page 740 and 741: accepted values are getRequest, get
Page 742 and 743: Spectrum is available in both UNIX
Page 744 and 745: Figure 11.8. Windows NT 4.0 SNMP Ag
Page 746 and 747: To access any of the NT SNMP agent
Page 748 and 749:
The installation of the SNMP agent
Page 750 and 751:
Figure 11.13. The Windows 95/98 Sel
Page 752 and 753:
Figure 11.15. Locating the Windows
Page 754 and 755:
Figure 11.17. The SNMP configuratio
Page 756 and 757:
2. Scroll to Network Connectivity o
Page 758 and 759:
sysLocation information, go to the
Page 760 and 761:
example that just implements the ba
Page 762 and 763:
protocol, service, and application
Page 764 and 765:
RFC 1089 RFC 1147 RFC 1155 RFC 1157
Page 766:
Appendix A. Binary Conversion Table
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