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followed by expiation rites as prescribed by the priests after consulting the Sacred
Books (Livy, 22.1.14.20; 22.36.9). 300
As Varro prepares to lead out the army from the camp at Cannae for an attack he is
recalled by Paulus because the sacred chickens refuse to eat their corn (Livy, 22.42.7-
10). The omen of the chickens is identical to one that Livy used to forecast an earlier
defeat of Romans at the hands of Carthaginians. In the Periocha of the previous decad
which covered the First Punic War it is recorded that the consul, Claudius Pulcher,
ignored the sign of the sacred chickens refusing to eat and was defeated (Livy, Per.
19.2). 301
Livy‟s decision to link these two defeats of the Punic Wars with the omen of the
chickens is strengthened by his decision not to use this omen in association with
Flaminius prior to Trasimene even though there was a tradition for it (Cicero, de Div.
1.3.35.77). Levene 302 suggests that Livy doesn‟t include this omen in association with
Flaminius in order to avoid too much repetition, which may be so, but the effect of the
repetition is to link two major Roman defeats between the First and Second Punic Wars.
Furthermore, Livy makes the connection explicit when he presents Varro recollecting
the outcome of Claudius Pulcher ignoring omens. Varro countermands his earlier order
and returns to the camp (Livy, 22.42.9). Unfortunately Varro‟s deference to the gods
only serves to delay the inevitable result because, as Cicero advises, the will of the Fates
cannot be overridden by obeying or ignoring omens (Cicero, de Div., 2.8.21).
Interestingly Cicero illustrates this remark with the example of the omens at Cannae but
gives it in terms of Paulus, not Varro. Cicero says that Paulus obeyed the signs but still
lost his life and his army (de Div. 2.33.71).
In addition to the omens prior to Cannae and the link to defeat in the First Punic War,
Livy links Cannae to the victory at the Metaurus River through portents involving the
Vestals. He remarks that after Cannae people retrospectively sought prodigies to
recognise and expunge in their efforts to appease the gods. These, Livy explains, had to
be extreme in nature to match the extent of the disaster; hence two vestal virgins were
found guilty of breaking their vows.
300 The first omen list is followed by a long list of appeasements with sacrificial victims, a three-day
supplication at all the couches of the gods, a gold thunderbolt gifted to Jupiter, offerings of silver to Juno
and Minerva, and a lectisternium by the matrons, all culminating in the foundation of the Saturnalia as a
public holiday (Livy, 22.1.14.20). Presenting a list of omens followed by an expiation involving women is
paralleled at Livy, 27.37 where the omens are expiated in part by the chorus of young women processing
from the Carmental gate.
301 Cf. Val. Max. 1.4.3: Claudius ordered the chickens thrown in the sea to let them drink.
122