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the same family have held such a command various other possibilities for authors arise,
such as, whether to represent one, two, or all three men, as autonomous tyrant-figures or
as „good kings.‟ Of course, no-one directly states that the family held autonomous rule
in Spain, particularly in the narrative sequences around the siege and fall of Saguntum
(because it undermines the justification for Rome‟s war with Carthage). Quotations of
the Ebro treaty only refer to the „Carthaginians‟ and presentations of disagreements over
the validity or otherwise of the treaty refer to it exclusively in terms of the relations
between Rome and Carthage (Hist. 3.20.6; 21.1-3; 33.1-4; Livy, 21.18.4-12; Pun. 1.693-
4). 127 Yet, Cornelius Nepos‟ biographies of Hamilcar and Hannibal are placed under a
heading of kings; the poet Statius refers to Hannibal as a king (Silv. 4.6.75). 128 Similarly
Hannibal‟s rise to power in Nepos‟ biography is reported to Carthage as fait accompli:
hoc quoque interfecto, exercitus summam imperii ad eum detulit. Id Karthaginem
delatum publice comprobatum est (Nepos, Hann. 3.1). One of Polybius‟ literary
portraits also suggests that Hannibal held some level of autonomy similar to kingship
following his rise to power in Spain (Hist. 23.13). The establishment of dominions and
founding cities 129 in Spain may or may not be under sanction from Carthage. In
addition, Hannibal‟s marriage to an elite woman from a Spanish tribe may represent
active participation in royal status whilst ensuring the loyalty of her tribe; Silius Italicus
gives her a long and sacred lineage (Pun. 3.62-65; 3.97-100).
Hannibal‟s predecessor, Hasdrubal, is a shadowy intermediate figure and
representations of him differ markedly, but all are negative. Polybius‟ quotation of
Fabius Pictor indicates an early tradition presenting Hasdrubal as no less aggressive than
Hamilcar and Hannibal. Furthermore, after gaining power in Spain, Hasdrubal
apparently attempted to establish a monarchy at Carthage but was blocked by rivals and
returned to Spain which he ruled independently. In this tradition, Hasdrubal‟s ambition
and love of power was considered one of the causes of the Second Punic War as his
successor, Hannibal, admired his principles and adopted the same policies (Hist. 3.8.1-
5). While Polybius criticises many of Fabius Pictor‟s interpretations, on this occasion he
agrees that Hamilcar Barca inspired both Hasdrubal and Hannibal with hatred for Rome,
126 See discussion in Green, 1989, 202 and Spencer, 2002, 157-9..
127 Scholars differ over the level of autonomy for the Barcids in Spain; see Hoyos, 1998, 150 n1. The
concern in this thesis is the literary presentation of these figures.
128 Gruen, 1984, 354 n197; Seibert, 1993, 5, 13 cite a letter purporting to be from Hannibal that styles
him as „king of the Carthaginians;‟ it offers a prize for the best poem about Hannibals‟ victories but is
considered to be a first century BC parody.
129 See discussion in Hoyos, 2006, Introduction, xiv-xv.
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