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accompanying scenes of titillation, and, indeed, it will be shown that the differences
between the texts tend to lie in which moral(s) or aspects of a moral an author chose to
emphasise as missing or perverted among the Capuans, as well as Hannibal.
A famously emblematic representation of Hannibal is as an „eternal enemy‟ of Rome
(Appian, Hann. 1). Both Appian and Polybius introduce Hannibal to their texts in this
guise, whereas it becomes a role that Hannibal gradually grows into across two decads
in Livy, or assigned to him at Zama in Silius Italicus and Cornelius Nepos. The theme of
Hannibal as a sworn enemy of Rome is discussed in the final chapter of this thesis.
Following Zama, Hannibal is presented in a variety of guises, including, for some, that
of a saviour of Carthage. Livy‟s depiction of Hannibal as a saviour of Carthage is
adapted to present his audience with another example of Punic trickery. Cornelius
Nepos and Silius Italicus opt for an alternative tradition, one in which Hannibal does not
accept the defeat as final but swears to continue warfare, an „eternal enemy‟ openly
keeping to his oath. An eternal enemy may be considered as a representative of dark
forces, for every positive there must be a negative in order to achieve balance. The glory
of Rome requires a powerful dark force, and this becomes Hannibal.
Over time Hannibal becomes the example by which other enemies are measured; his
name is used far more frequently than Antiochus, or Pyrrhus. For Cicero and Cornelius
Nepos, surrounded by the civil wars of the late republic, Hannibal represented an „ideal‟
or archetypal foreign enemy that Romans of old used to fight, fear and hold in respect.
Cicero has no respect for Antonius, and, as always, applies his analogies with great care
to make pointed judgements about his opponent. In the Philippics he upholds Hannibal
as a paradigm for a worthy enemy against whom Antonius cannot measure. 78
Cicero seems to have steered clear of publicly comparing Caesar and Hannibal but in
the later imperial period others were less circumspect. Liebeschuetz argued for
similarities between Lucan‟s Caesar and Hannibal. 79 McGuire identifies passages in the
Punica that seem to characterise Hannibal and allude to Caesar. 80 As noted above, Silius
Italicus used omens to connect Cannae with the historical battle at Pharsalus, and in
particular to connect the Roman army at Cannae with the Pompeians at Pharsalus. By
78 Billot, 2005a: Cicero compares Antonius poorly against Hannibal on 9 occasions in Philippics I, V, VI,
XIII and XIV, but he does not see Antonius as „another‟ Hannibal as in Lancel, 1998, 219.
79 Liebeschuetz, 1989, 168.
80 McGuire, 1997, 84, esp. n47. Cf. Von Albrecht, 1966; Vessey, 1973; Ahl, Davis, Pomeroy, 1986, 2511
who note that the differences between Silius‟ Hannibal and Caesar are almost as compelling as the
similarities.
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