Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks

22 Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks
and agriculturally self-sufficient. No less crucial was its treatment
of the inhabitants of Messenia, whom it reduced to the level of helots
or slaves. Sparta henceforth became extremely conservative,
wary of both political change and foreign ventures, and incapable
of making any decision without considering the consequences for
its control over the helots.
Some time after the conquest of Messenia, Sparta acquired a new
constitution, which it ascribed to a legendary lawgiver named Lykourgos.
Even assuming that Lykourgos was a historical figure, this
new constitution probably evolved over a period of many years.
The bulk of it, nonetheless, was probably introduced around 700
b.c.e. Some of the enactments were enshrined in a document called
the Great Rhetra (rhêtra means “the thing said”), which established
a compromise between aristocrats and commoners (Plutarch, Life
of Lykourgos, 6).
The Spartan constitution was greatly admired in antiquity because
it was thought to exhibit a harmonious balance between three competing
systems of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.
At the head of the Spartan state was a dual kingship. The two
kings, who had equal power, could campaign either together or
separately. Aside from their military role, however, their powers
were strictly curtailed. They were subject to constant scrutiny by
five magistrates known as ephors (the word means literally “overseer”),
who were elected annually. If found guilty of impropriety,
they could be deposed or exiled. The aristocratic feature of the constitution
was the gerousia or council of elders. This consisted of the
kings plus 28 citizens over the age of 60 chosen from the aristocracy.
Finally, there was the apella, or assembly, which all citizens, known
as homoioi, or “peers,” attended, though its powers seem to have
been extremely restricted.
In 669 b.c.e. , following the introduction of the reforms ascribed to
Lykourgos, the Spartan army was decisively defeated by the Argives
at Hysiai in northeastern Peloponnese. The effect of this defeat on
Spartan morale was considerable. Within a decade, and presumably
as a direct consequence, the helots revolted. A protracted war
ensued, which Sparta eventually won. It was during this war that
Sparta developed its celebrated ethic of eunomia, or “obedience to
the law,” which was destined to become the hallmark of its culture
for centuries to come.
In the second half of the seventh century b.c.e. , Sparta continued
to import luxuries from abroad, its potters and painters developed
a lively and original style, and its poetry and music were second to