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Chapter 1 may impose enormous costs on farmers due to the large-scale or intensive farming practices frequently used. Additionally, vaccinated animals may also shed the pathogen for weeks after vaccination, therefore there is still a possible risk of entry into the food chain through cross contamination. Moreover, Salmonella vaccine development is expensive due to the serovar specific nature of vaccine design and as a result development is restricted to a small number of serovars. Consequently, it may be possible that other serovars may replace the serovars vaccinated against [6]. The displacement of a predominant serovar post vaccination and increased biosecurity measures has previously been reported with S. Enteritidis replacing S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum dominance in poultry [7]. 1.4. Clinical features of salmonellosis The infectious dose of Salmonella necessary to induce infection is dependent on multiple factors including virulence of the serovar and hostspecific factors such as age, health and host response to the bacterial infection [8]. Following a review of clinical studies performed with participants administered doses of live Salmonella, Blaser et al. reported that the infectious dose ranged from just 25 cells of S. Sofia and S. Bovismorbificans, to 2x10 9 of S. Typhimurium to induce salmonellosis and a dose of 1x10 10 cells of S. Pullorum were necessary to induce salmonellosis in human hosts [9]. The clinical features of a Salmonella infection can include self limiting gastroenteritis and dehydration. The symptoms of non typhoid salmonellosis can include diarrhoea, stomach cramps, headaches and nausea. Severe infections including infections in immunocompromised patients can lead to bacteraemia, meningitis, and possible death. Page 3
Chapter 1 1.5. Treatment of Salmonella infection The most fundamental point about treatment of NTS is that most cases need to maintain hydration and do not need or benefit from antimicrobial treatment. Antimicrobial agents are required for those with invasive disease and for other specific categories [10]. Antibiotics are commonly prescribed for early treatment of Salmonella infections. However increasing antimicrobial resistance associated with Salmonella strains has hindered effective treatment in the past as reviewed by Sirinavin et al. [10]. 1.6. Sources of Salmonella contamination Salmonella is a bacterial zoonotic pathogen that is commonly found in the gut and intestinal tract of animals including farmed, domestic and wild animals. Therefore there are numerous routes that allow its entry into the food chain. During the processing of raw meat, contaminated digestive tract contents can colonize surfaces or other meats leading to cross contamination of entire surfaces or products. Salmonella can also contaminate fresh fruit and vegetables through contaminated faecal content polluting freshwater and soil. This may arise through fertilization with contaminated animal manure or poor sanitary conditions and waste water treatment. Herman and colleagues reported that there was a 30% increase in the number of Salmonella outbreaks associated with contamination of leafy greens despite a decrease in consumption over a ten year period [11]. Live poultry at all stages of the farming process can be carriers of Salmonella. Salmonella can also colonize the ovaries of infected poultry leading to colonized eggs produced via transovarial transmission [12]. Salmonella can also contaminate egg contents when contaminants remain on the outside of soiled eggshells or seep through the surface through Page 4
Page 1: Salmonella enterica - biofilm forma
Page 4 and 5: Table of Contents Page Number 1.16.
Page 6 and 7: Table of Contents Page Number 4.1.2
Page 8 and 9: Table of Contents Page Number 6.8.4
Page 10 and 11: List of Abbreviations Table Page Nu
Page 12 and 13: List of Abbreviations List of Abbre
Page 14 and 15: Summary of Content Summary of Conte
Page 16 and 17: “To show your true ability is alw
Page 18 and 19: Acknowledgements ever met, Fiona th
Page 20 and 21: Acknowledgements This Ph.D. thesis
Page 22 and 23: Chapter 1 1.1. Salmonella Salmonell
Page 26 and 27: Chapter 1 cracks or penetration of
Page 28 and 29: Chapter 1 detected by agglutination
Page 30 and 31: Chapter 1 become colonized with >10
Page 32 and 33: Chapter 1 antigens [z27],[z45] [1].
Page 34 and 35: Chapter 1 S. Agona has also been im
Page 36 and 37: Chapter 1 isolated from undercooked
Page 38 and 39: Chapter 1 The S. Typhimurium strain
Page 40 and 41: Chapter 1 ecosystem with the use of
Page 42 and 43: Chapter 1 [82]. Previous research h
Page 44 and 45: Chapter 1 to genes involved in flag
Page 46 and 47: Chapter 1 observation has also been
Page 48 and 49: Chapter 1 [119] and flow cell react
Page 50 and 51: Chapter 1 based disinfectant) the s
Page 52 and 53: Chapter 1 formation of two strains
Page 54 and 55: Chapter 1 shield the S. Agona cells
Page 56 and 57: Chapter 1 Key Objectives of this st
Page 58 and 59: Chapter 2 2. Abstract Food-borne pa
Page 60 and 61: Chapter 2 indicated that there may
Page 62 and 63: Chapter 2 taken from industrial set
Page 64 and 65: Chapter 2 2.1.4. CDC Biofilm Reacto
Page 66 and 67: Chapter 2 can be performed without
Page 68 and 69: Chapter 2 To summarise, previous au
Page 70 and 71: Chapter 2 2.3. Methods for examinin
Page 72 and 73: Chapter 2 and the biofilm formed th
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Chapter 2 2.4. Statistical Analysis
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Chapter 2 Table 2.1: Strain charact
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Chapter 2 XII. The gas port and med
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Chapter 2 II. Primary fixative cons
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Chapter 2 IX. Once the conditions w
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.1: Image of CBR
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Chapter 2 2.6. Results 2.6.1. Asses
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Chapter 2 2.6.3. SEM Analysis of su
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.6: Complete remo
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Chapter 2 2.6.5. Mean log 10 densit
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Chapter 2 2.6.6. Mean log 10 densit
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Chapter 2 Table 2.5: Mean log 10 de
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Chapter 2 The results displayed in
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Chapter 2 Table 2.7: Difference bet
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Chapter 2 Table 2.8: The mean log 1
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Chapter 2 Figure 2.7: Graph of the
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Chapter 2 also used “high” soni
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Chapter 2 2.8. Summary All 13 strai
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Chapter 3 3. Abstract It has been e
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Chapter 3 classified as persistent
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Chapter 3 was plated onto TSA for e
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.1: The mean log
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Chapter 3 Figure 3.3: SEM image of
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Chapter 3 Table 3.2: Difference bet
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Chapter 3 3.4.3. Intra-serovar vari
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Chapter 3 3.4.4. Strain variation i
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Chapter 3 3.4.5. The density of bio
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Chapter 3 3.5. Discussion As illust
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Chapter 3 As discussed in section 3
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Chapter 3 increased biofilm appeare
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Chapter 4 Examining the efficacy of
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Chapter 4 through laboratory based
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Chapter 4 acid and quaternary ammon
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Chapter 4 the surface the temperatu
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Chapter 4 availability of multiple
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Chapter 4 peracetic acid (100, 200,
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Chapter 4 As discussed previously,
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Chapter 4 Dey/Engley (Difco) neutra
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Chapter 4 sterilisation was achieve
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Chapter 4 IX. Aliquots of 100µl of
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Chapter 4 XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX
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Chapter 4 4.3. Results 4.3.1. Suspe
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Chapter 4 Table 4.3: Mean log 10 de
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Chapter 4 Benzalkonium chloride was
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Chapter 4 4.4. Discussion Suspensio
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Chapter 4 effective at eliminating
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Chapter 4 Surprisingly, Nguyen et a
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Chapter 4 though a contact time of
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Chapter 4 provide a more standardis
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Chapter 4 hours instead of the stan
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Chapter 5 5. Abstract Examining bio
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Chapter 5 dry and rough (bdar) morp
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Chapter 5 absence of curli and cell
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Chapter 5 studies such as the micro
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Chapter 5 discussed in chapter 4. T
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Chapter 5 5.2. Methods 5.2.1. Colon
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Chapter 5 XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII.
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Chapter 5 XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX
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Chapter 5 5.3.2. Repeatability of m
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Chapter 5 Figure 5.2: Stained biofi
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Chapter 5 was formed at room temper
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Chapter 5 Table 5.3: The density of
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Chapter 5 5.3.4. The density of bio
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Chapter 5 Table 5.6: The difference
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Chapter 5 Table 5.7: The difference
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Chapter 5 Table 5.8: Summary of ass
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Chapter 5 interpretation therefore
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Chapter 5 measures of S. enterica b
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Chapter 5 cells peaks [165, 191]. D
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Chapter 5 5.5. Limitations of the s
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Chapter 6 Discussion of S. enterica
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Chapter 6 However, a number of auth
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Chapter 6 It is of interest to exam
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Chapter 6 were similar at 48 hours.
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Chapter 6 attributable to a small n
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Chapter 6 chosen as an appropriate
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Chapter 6 undetermined. However, th
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Chapter 6 reason for this may be du
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Chapter 6 Moreover, based on the re
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Chapter 6 responsible for increased
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Chapter 6 not fully capture the ran
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Chapter 6 However, the extent of bi
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Chapter 6 6.10. Conclusions and rec
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Chapter 6 studies may solve some of
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Bibliography Bibliography Page 221
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Bibliography 12. T. Takata, J.L., H
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Bibliography 29. Barker, J., M. Nae
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Bibliography 47. Threlfall, E.J., H
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Bibliography 65. CDC. Investigation
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Bibliography 83. Ledeboer, N., Frye
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Bibliography 100. Chia, T., Goulter
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Bibliography 117. Buckingham-Meyer,
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Bibliography 133. European Committe
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Bibliography Supernatant of a Hafni
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Bibliography 165. Díez-García, M.
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Bibliography cultivation of Staphyl
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Bibliography Compounds. 2012. Appli
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Bibliography 215. Buck, et al., A q
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Bibliography Canadian Journal of Ps
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Appendix 1 Appendix 1— List of Re
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Appendix 1 Appendix 1 - List of Equ
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Appendix 2 Colour index High outlie
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Page 280 and 281:
Page 282 and 283:
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Appendix 3 Appendix 3-Figure 2: PFG
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Appendix 4 Poster Presentation Envi
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