Through the Eras

Literaturewhether men were inherently evil because of the gods orwere themselves responsible for their actions. The originof evil and the degree to which humans’ actions are fatedoccupy much of the pessimistic literature.THE SECURE WORLD. The debate over the originof evil and human fate can also continue within a singlework. Thus descriptions of the secure world can also befound within works that accuse the gods of creating evil.The Prophecy of Neferty is structured as a series of antitheticalstatements contrasting the evil world of the FirstIntermediate Period with the better world to come duringthe Twelfth Dynasty. Rebellion will end, foreign enemieswill be subdued, people will celebrate, and the kingwill restore justice. The contemporary literary texts called“teachings” also provide a method for subduing evilthrough practicing justice. The Teachings for Merykare discusseshow a king can act to create a better world for all.Merykare receives advice on how to handle each class ofpeople including officials, soldiers, rebels, and criminals.His father in the text urges reliance on tradition, the dailydivine cult, and the mortuary cult in order to foster justice.Even the very pessimistic The Teachings of Amenemhetseems to anticipate better from the reign of his sonSenwosret I in his teachings. The author of The EloquentPeasant is also able to describe a world with justice, appropriatepunishments, and the merciful treatment of theweak that is all part of the Egyptian idea of justice. InThe Dialogue of a Man with his Ba, the next world containsmany of the elements of justice that are missing inthe world of the living, including properly provisionedtemples and punishment of evildoers.IMPORTANT THEMES. The pessimistic literatureshows that the Egyptians contemplated many of basicproblems facing mankind. They were particularly concernedwith the origin of evil, the proper way to combatevil, and the proper way to promote justice in aninsecure world.SOURCESElke Blumenthal, “Die literarische Verarbeitung der Ubergangszeitzwischen Altem und Mittererm Reich,” inAncient Egyptian Literature: History and Forms. Ed. AntonioLoprieno (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1996):105–136.Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. I(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).STORY OF SINUHEIMPORTANCE. The Story of Sinuhe survives in manymanuscripts, suggesting that the Egyptians considered itamong their most important literary works. The oldestmanuscripts date to the Twelfth Dynasty (1938–1759B.C.E.), also the time of the story’s setting. There are alsomore than twenty New Kingdom (1539–1075 B.C.E.)copies and even a Late Period copy (664–332 B.C.E.).This large number of copies surviving in all major periodsis due to the fact that scribe schools required scribesto copy this text as part of scribal training. Yet, the factthat so many scribes worked on copying Sinuhe suggeststhat it was also studied in all time periods. It is thus awork of literature that connected the Egyptian literateclass for 2,000 years. The text also includes variations onmany literary genres. Overall, it is structured to resemblean autobiography and is narrated in the first person.Unlike a tomb autobiography, however, Sinuhe’s lifegoes astray rather than meeting the ideal as in the standardbiography. It also includes songs, monologues, andeven a letter.CONTEXT. Though Sinuhe was an important pointof reference for all literate Egyptians, it also provides animportant window into the Twelfth Dynasty, the timewhen it was written. The story deals briefly with the assassinationof King Amenemhet I (1938–1909 B.C.E.)and the accession of his son King Senwosret I who hadco-ruled with him since 1919 B.C.E. The story emphasizesSenwosret’s mercy to Sinuhe. This has led scholarsto believe that the story provided propagandistic supportfor this king. The story also reveals Egyptian attitudestoward foreigners in the period directly preceding an actualforeign domination of Egypt by the Hyksos. Thusit has great importance for helping scholars understandEgyptian attitudes toward foreigners before the Hyksos.More recent study has emphasized the high literary qualityfound in the text. All of these elements combine tomake Sinuhe important both in its own time and toscholars today.THE STORY. The Story of Sinuhe narrates the adventuresof a nobleman who served Queen Neferu,daughter of Amenemhet I (1938–1909 B.C.E.) and wifeof Senwosret I (1919–1875 B.C.E.). When the storyopens, Sinuhe is on a military campaign in Libya withSenwosret I, son of the reigning king Amenemhet I. Thenews of Amenemhet I’s assassination reaches the armyand Sinuhe panics, fearing that Egypt will fall into turmoil.He is particularly worried that his close connectionsto the royal family will jeopardize his own lifeshould Senwosret I be denied his legitimate claim to thethrone. He decides to flee Egypt, traveling across Egypt’seastern border into the lands beyond. In his haste toleave, however, he does not pack sufficient provisionsand nearly dies of thirst in the desert. A bedouin chief130 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt (2675 B.C.E.–332 B.C.E.)