Through the Eras

PhilosophyBoth the frame and the treatise mutually reinforce eachother and thus the reader learns more about the natureof maat. Additionally, the orations themselves amountto an example of Egyptian rhetoric.AUTHORS. Teachings are the only Egyptian literarycategory that regularly names the author. The namedauthor might not actually be the person who wrote thetext, however. For example, the text attributed to Ptahhotepof the Fifth Dynasty (2500–2350 B.C.E.) was likelywritten in the Twelfth Dynasty (1938–1759 B.C.E.). Yetcopies of teachings, no matter when they were writtenor re-copied, maintain a connection with an author. Bythe New Kingdom (1539–1075 B.C.E.), authors associatedwith teachings were the classic writers. Men whosenames were attached to teachings such as Ptahhotep,Hordjedef, Khety, Ipuwer, and Neferty were named ina New Kingdom document as immortals. The NewKingdom text claims that their writings are better guaranteesof immortality than their tombs.RIGHT ORDER. The central subject of all the didacticliterature is the nature of maat. The teachings describespecific cases that allow a person to live accordingto maat. The complaints and prophecies describe theworld that lacks maat. The absence of maat is the centralcause of disorder, injustice, and social ruin. The farmerin The Eloquent Peasant compares his own situation withthe presence and absence of maat. Royal teachings, writtenfor princes, also discuss the political implications ofadhering to maat.FRAME STORIES. Most of the teachings have framestories. These stories introduce the dramatic situationwhere usually a father speaks to his son or all his childrenso that he can explain the nature of maat. Oftenthe father is an old and famous person who has reachedthe end of his career. He clearly states that he wants toshare the knowledge he has gained in the course of along life. In The Teachings of Ptahhotep the speaker is theprime minister of King Djedkare Isesy (2415–2371B.C.E.), though the text was probably actually composedby someone else nearly 500 years later. In the frame story,Ptahhotep asks the king’s permission to share his knowledge.The king’s agreement indicated to an ancientEgyptian that the knowledge and philosophy containedin the text was important and should be shared with thesons of all officials. Many other teachings specificallydescribe the speaker talking to his own son or children.WISE MEN. The frame stories help scholars determinewho could be a wise man or philosopher in Egyptianthought. Ptahhotep was a prime minister, the highestpolitical office available to a commoner. A New Kingdominstruction names Amenemope, who held a title placinghim in charge of agriculture for all Egypt. Thus he wasalso a very high official. Much of his advice centers onagriculture. These men derive their authority from successin their careers. They also speak about the way togain success in public life. Their concerns include theproper way to debate and how to behave at importantsocial events. They enumerate different ways of pleasinga superior and generally how to get ahead in life. Butother texts name only “a man” as the speaker. In thiscase where the father may not have been as great a successas Ptahhotep or Amenemope, he tells his son thatloyalty to the king is the best way to advance in life.DEVELOPMENT. The earlier texts such as Ptahhotepspeak mostly of practical tips for advancement and equatethese tips with maat. The Teachings of Amenemope, whichdates to the New Kingdom, additionally includes manyexamples of moral behavior. Yet it is not clear that thischange in subject matter is a true example of development.So few texts have been preserved from antiquitythat it is not fair to say that the moral dimension waslacking in the earlier period. Perhaps texts similar toAmenemope existed in the earlier period but have notsurvived. Yet it is clear that Amenemope includes virtuesnot discussed by Ptahhotep. It integrates wider humanexperience into the text and promotes a way of life ratherthan just isolated behaviors.IDEAL MAN. Much of the didactic literature describesan ideal man that the Egyptians called the ger(“silent man”). The opposite type was the shemem(“heated man”). The silent man is not only silent, however.His silence comes when he thinks before he reacts.He is thoughtful, temperate, and judicious. He reflectsbefore answering a “heated man,” a man ruled by hisemotions. The contrast between the silent man and theheated man is most fully developed in Amenemope. Thesilent man is truthful, honest, straightforward, open,respectful, circumspect, diligent, generous, caring, andsympathetic. Amenemope compares him to a tree growingin the sunlight that flourishes in the garden. Hecontrasts this tree with the heated man, a tree plantedin dark. Without sunlight, he withers and dies. The gardenersremove him and burn him on the rubbish heap.Here it is clear that the silent man earns eternal life forhis virtues, while the heated man cannot achieve theafterlife.THE TEACHINGS OF PTAHHOTEP. The didactic literatureincludes a wide variety of texts, though the majorityof them are teachings. The Teachings of Ptahhotep isthe most complete of any ancient Egyptian philosophicalArts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt (2675 B.C.E.–332 B.C.E.) 191