Through the Eras

OVERVIEWof ReligionDEFINITION. The ancient Egyptians had no wordfor religion. For them, religion was not a separate categoryof thought requiring an approach different fromthat used when discussing philosophy, science, or anyother topic. Therefore, the first step in any study ofEgyptian religion is to decide what religion is and thenexamine the Egyptian record for data relating to this definition.Attempts to define religion as a phenomenonare numerous, and no universal definition has beenagreed on. The definition used here will follow that ofMelford Spiro, who suggested that religion is an “institutionconsisting of culturally patterned interaction withculturally postulated superhuman beings.”COMPONENTS. This definition consists of threemain components. First, religion is an institution. Onlysocial groups practice religion. In other words, a personcannot have a religion of one. An individual can havehis or her own beliefs, but for those beliefs to be calleda religion a wider group must practice them. Egyptianreligion could be practiced in the formal setting of themassive state temples, with their extensive holdings ofland, buildings, and personnel, or in the privacy of anEgyptian home. Second, religion assumes the existenceof “culturally postulated superhuman beings,” beings wemay call gods, demons, or spirits. The Egyptians believedthese beings were able to influence the lives of humanbeings, either for good or bad. The ancient Egyptianterm for these beings was netjer. Third, religion includesthe interaction between people and these superhumanbeings. These interactions can take two forms: peopleengage in activities that they think please the superhumanbeings, such as behaving morally and ethically, carryingout prescribed rituals, and participating in festivals;and people engage in activities for the purpose of influencingthe superhuman beings. They urge the superhumanbeings to act on behalf of a particular individual orcease acting against that individual. They can also urgesimilar requests for a group. These activities includeprayers, sacrifices, or votive offerings.MEANING OF NETJER. The Egyptian word that istranslated into English as “god” is netjer. This word iswritten with a hieroglyph resembling a yellow flag on agreen flagpole. The etymology of the word “netjer” isuncertain. We know it corresponds roughly to the word“god” because in the Ptolemaic period (332–30 B.C.E.)of Egyptian history, bilingual decrees in Greek andEgyptian translate the Egyptian netjer with the Greekword for god, theos. A detailed examination of Egyptiantexts reveals that the word netjer has a far wider frameof reference than the English “god.” The word could alsorefer to the Egyptian king, certain living animals, and todead people or animals. The one thing every entity referredto as “netjer” had in common was that it was theobject of a ritual, or received some sort of offerings duringa ritual. When viewed in this light, there are fiveclasses of beings that the Egyptians called “netjer.” Firstare those beings modern-day theologians would callgods. They were created as netjer from the beginning,and did not acquire the status at a later date. For them,ritual served to maintain and preserve their status as gods,much as food allows a person to maintain the status ofa living being. These beings received daily rituals and offeringsin the temples and shrines throughout Egypt.Next are those beings that acquired the status of netjerthrough undergoing a ritual at some time after theirbirth. These entities fall into two categories: those whoundergo a ritual and therefore become a netjer while living,and those who become a netjer after death. In thefirst category are the kings of Egypt and certain sacredanimals. The king, at his accession, underwent a coronationritual and as a result acquired the status of netjer.In addition to the king, the Egyptians viewed certainanimals as being special manifestations of particulargods, usually based on the presence of special markingsor characteristics. These animals also underwent a ritualwhich inducted them into the category of netjer andmade them instruments through which a particular godcould make his presence manifest. The last category ofbeings that were considered to be netjer is those beingsthat underwent a ritual, and hence became netjer, afterdeath. The funerary ritual had the effect of turning everydeceased Egyptian for whom it was practiced into a netjer.The dead person would become an akh, the Egyptianword for a glorified spirit, and would be the recipientof offerings of food and drink from his family members.Finally, animals belonging to particular species that werekept at Egyptian temples would be mummified andburied at death, conferring on them the status of netjer.CHARACTERISTICS. Ancient Egyptian religion hascertain characteristics that differ from what most West-208 Arts and Humanities Through the Eras: Ancient Egypt (2675 B.C.E.–332 B.C.E.)