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Figure 4-6. Central windward study area. Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan forest (9.2 percent). This results in even higher population densities in koa plantations (13 pairs per 247 acres), than in closed forest (10 pairs per 247 acres) or open forest (5 pairs per 247 acres) (Pejchar 2005). Moth larvae are the most common food item in ‘akiapōlā‘au fecal samples, followed by spiders and longhorned beetle larvae (Ralph and Fancy 1996). Koa, kōlea, māmane, and naio are the moths’ 4-20 Chapter 4. Refuge Biology and Habitats
Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan preferred forage plant species, while „ōhi„a is not favored. The foraging behavior of „akiapōlā„au is very specialized compared with that of other forest birds, and foraging sites and food may be limiting. This species rarely takes nectar from flowers, but it recently has been discovered to drink sap from small wells it drills in the bark of „ōhi„a trees. Only a few trees in a bird‟s territory are used for this purpose, and they are defended against other „akiapōlā‟au. On average, sap trees are larger, have thinner bark, greater sap flow, and tend to occur on convex slopes with more light (Pejchar and Jeffrey 2004). „Akiapōlā„au often join mixed-species foraging flocks, perhaps to enhance detection of predators. In montane mesic forests, they most frequently associate with Hawai„i creeper and „ākepa, whereas in subalpine dry forest they are found with Hawai„i „amakihi and palila. The importance of these flocks to „akiapōlā„au has not been studied but may prove relevant to the conservation of this species and the need to maintain intact, functioning ecosystems (USFWS 2006b). „Akiapōlā„au are limited by habitat loss and degradation, predation, and introduced diseases. Due to its low reproductive rate, this species may be particularly vulnerable to these threats and slow to recover. Other factors, such as competition from introduced avian and arthropod insectivores may also limit the range of the species (USFWS 2006b). The impact of habitat loss and degradation, particularly in mesic and dry forest, also threaten „akiapōlā„au. Dry high elevation māmane-naio forest habitat on the slopes of Mauna Kea has been severely degraded by decades of browsing by goats and sheep. The dispersal behavior of „akiapōlā„au is poorly known, but habitat fragmentation may isolate the remaining populations, decrease the effective population size, and hinder recolonization of areas that were formerly inhabited (USFWS 2006b). Predation of nests and adults by rats, cats, mongooses, and owls is suspected to have a significant impact on many native Hawaiian bird species (Atkinson 1977, Smucker et al. 2000, VanderWerf and Smith 2002). Recent surveys indicate rat densities are high at the HFU, which contains a significant portion of the largest remaining „akiapōlā„au population (USGS, unpubl.). Juvenile „akiapōlā„au may be especially vulnerable to predators during the post-fledging period because their loud, persistent begging call makes them easy to locate (USFWS 2006b). Most Hawaiian forest birds are susceptible to introduced mosquito-borne diseases, and the „akiapōlā„au may be limited to its current high-elevation distribution by these diseases (Scott et al. 1986; van Riper et al. 1986; Atkinson et al. 1995, 2005). Despite the availability of apparently suitable habitat, „akiapōlā„au are absent from most areas below 4,500 ft, where mosquitoes are common (USFWS 2006b). 4.4.2 Hawai‘i ‘Ākepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus) The Hawai„i „ākepa is a small sexually dichromatic Hawaiian honeycreeper. Males obtain their bright orange adult plumage 3 years after hatching (Lepson and Freed 1995). The subadult plumage is dull brownish-orange, although individual variation is high. Females are grayish green with a yellow breast band. The lower mandible of the „ākepa is slightly bent to one side which results in the mandible tips being offset; a characteristic shared with the „akeke„e. The bend can be to the left or Chapter 4. Refuge Biology and Habitats 4-21
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U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Hakala
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Executive Summary Executive Summary
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Executive Summary Hakalau Forest Na
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Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Re
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vi Hakalau Forest National Wildlife
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Figure 1-1. Refuge vicinity. Chapte
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Figure 1-2. HFU location. Chapter 1
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Figure 1-3. KFU location. Chapter 1
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4.9.16 Silene hawaiiensis Hakalau F
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Scientific Name Hakalau Forest Nati
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Scientific Name Hakalau Forest Nati
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Horses (Equus caballus caballus) Ha
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Chapter 5. Social S an nd Economic
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Figure 5-2. 5 HFU ad dministrativ v
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Figure 5-3. 5 KFU ad dministrativ v
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5.2.3 Camping Hakalau Forest Nation
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Kona Forest Unit Hakalau Forest Nat
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5.3.6 Refuge Contribution Hakalau F
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Appendices Above: Nēnē/John De Me
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Critical Habitat Hakalau Forest Nat
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Critical Habitat Life Year First Fa
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Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name
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Genus Species Hawaiian/Common Name
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3x3 Code Genus Species Syn Status I
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Use: Wildlife Observation and Photo
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Availability of Resources: Hakalau
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Wildlife Photography: Hakalau Fores
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Public Review and Comment: Hakalau
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Anticipated Impacts of the Use(s):
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� Surveys: Scientific inventory o
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References Cited: Hakalau Forest Na
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Permits Hakalau Forest National Wil
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Attachment 2 Study title: Fiscal ye
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Use: University of Hawai‘i Field
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References Cited: Hakalau Forest Na
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Activity 5-year intervals: 2015, 20
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Activity 5-year intervals: 2015, 20
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Comments or suggestions: Hakalau Fo
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Natural Processes (biotic and abiot
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Table 4-2. Resources of Concern. Ot
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Other Benefiting Species Life Histo
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6.5 Record Keeping 6.5.1 Labels and
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7.2.1 Environmental exposure Hakala
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7.2.3 Assumptions for ecological ri
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Table CP.1 Pesticide Name Trade Nam
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Date Acquired Hakalau Forest Nation
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U.S. Department of the Interior U.S
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