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development by undertaking action on their own is also analyzed. The analysis is based both on the Commissions’ work and on assessments of the work. 1.2 Theoretical Framework In order to analyze the empirical materials, three theoretical frameworks are applied. Firstly, the terms of the Norwegian peace researcher Johan Galtung (1996) “negative peace” and “positive peace” are referred to. Galtung’s definitions are: “Peace is the absence/reduction of violence of all kinds” versus “Peace is nonviolent and creative conflict transformation.” He also refers to negative peace “as absence of direct violence” and to positive peace “as the presence of symbiosis and equity in human relations” and “absence of structural and cultural violence.” Structural violence refers, above all, to exploitation, which means that the topdogs get much more out of the interaction in the structure than the underdogs. Cultural violence refers to such aspects of culture as religion and ideology, language and art, and empirical and formal science that can be used to justify or legitimize direct violence such as killings. In Galtung’s view, “positive peace is the best protection against violence” and “peace of any kind breeds peace of any kind.” In contrast, “violence of any kind breeds violence of any kind.” Positive peace is also referred to as a “... cooperative system beyond ‘passive peaceful coexistence’, one that can bring forth positively synergistic fruits of the harmony.” Galtung has two peace concepts: “Peace = direct (positive) peace + structural peace + cultural peace” is the static one. The more dynamic one is “Peace is what we have when creative conflict trans- 4 Peace-keeping in the Korean Peninsula
formation takes place nonviolently.” The latter refers to a system characteristic, that is, a context within which certain things can happen in a particular way. The test of peace is in the ability to handle conflict, that is, transforming the conflict by handling it creatively. 5 Secondly, the American scholars I. William Zartman and Maureen R. Berman (1982) present the “game theory.” It argues that a “zerosum” situation, referring to the view that what one side gains the other side loses, characterizes a conflict before negotiation starts. The aim of negotiations is to change that view and to change the points of dispute into something that both parties can benefit from. The key to change from a zero-sum to a non-zero sum situation is known as Homans’s theorem. It says: “The more the items at stake can be divided into goods valued more by one party than they cost to the other and goods valued more by the other party than they cost to the first, the greater the chances of successful outcomes.” Negotiations are also affected by toughness and softness, that is holding out and giving in. Toughness and softness must be separated for discussion, but each must be kept in mind while the other is being analyzed. The significance of trust and credibility in negotiations is included. Trust is one of the main characteristics of a fruitful negotiation, but it involves the paradox between being friendly and cooperative and trying to maximize its own benefits. No party to an agreement can be completely trustworthy since that would put it at the mercy of the other’s deception. On the other hand, to be completely untrustworthy would also be impossible: that would destroy the possibility of any 5_ Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1996), pp. 2, 9, 14, 30-33, 61, 196-9, 265. Introduction 5
Page 1: KINU Research Monograph 09-15 Peace
Page 4 and 5: Peace-keeping in the Korean Peninsu
Page 6 and 7: CONTENTS Acronyms Preface Acknowled
Page 8 and 9: CONTENTS 4.3 North-South Dialogue a
Page 10 and 11: CONTENTS Appendix ········
Page 12 and 13: Acronyms AA Armistice Agreement ASM
Page 14 and 15: Preface This monograph is the resea
Page 16 and 17: Acknowledgements Firstly, I wish to
Page 19 and 20: Chapter 1 Introduction
Page 21: (DMZ): “An invisible war now cont
Page 25 and 26: the same criteria. The game theory
Page 27 and 28: News Agency, one article from a jou
Page 29 and 30: is the 1953 Armistice Agreement, wh
Page 31 and 32: 1.6 Korean Names and Terminology Ko
Page 33 and 34: Chapter 2 The Foundation of the MAC
Page 35 and 36: pended, how the suspensions were en
Page 37 and 38: However, following strong pressure
Page 39 and 40: flag rank.” The other two “...
Page 41 and 42: secret designs or characteristics o
Page 43 and 44: hospital). To implement its tasks,
Page 45 and 46: cations themselves. In contrast, Sw
Page 47 and 48: as an “aide” and a soldier to c
Page 49 and 50: the way, reloading could freely be
Page 51 and 52: “Checks at the railway stations h
Page 53 and 54: the inspection teams did not work w
Page 55 and 56: fighter planes in transport contain
Page 57 and 58: Korea whether prisoners of war were
Page 59 and 60: armistice North Korea began to buil
Page 61 and 62: econnaissance flights by one airpla
Page 63 and 64: asserted that its investigation of
Page 65 and 66: On November 16, a North Korean comp
Page 67 and 68: taken photos. 41 The South admitted
Page 69 and 70: than at the plenary meetings. Howev
Page 71 and 72: ment rejected the proposal for pass
Page 73 and 74:
the Korean issue should be transfer
Page 75 and 76:
dispatched to investigate the incid
Page 77 and 78:
At the 63rd MAC meeting proposed by
Page 79 and 80:
Marshal General Headquarters. 52 Ar
Page 81 and 82:
According to Weilenmann (2004), sin
Page 83 and 84:
1953, was the first man to point ou
Page 85 and 86:
Treaty that obligated the US to com
Page 87 and 88:
were committed by North Korea and t
Page 89 and 90:
without any harm to the armistice c
Page 91 and 92:
ports of entry had reached a dead e
Page 93 and 94:
earming South Korea in violation of
Page 95 and 96:
the NNSC to work in North Korea and
Page 97 and 98:
At the same time, the South Korean
Page 99 and 100:
emaining teams became “subteams
Page 101 and 102:
ment “... regulating the activiti
Page 103 and 104:
violating Paragraph 13(d). The UNC/
Page 105 and 106:
The UNC/MAC representative maintain
Page 107 and 108:
Wigforss, pointed out the symbolic
Page 109 and 110:
menting its provisions had become i
Page 111 and 112:
to establish that the plane was arm
Page 113 and 114:
The UNC informed the NNSC about its
Page 115 and 116:
pointed out that the North abused t
Page 117 and 118:
an informal meeting in the part of
Page 119 and 120:
Swiss view was again that the issue
Page 121 and 122:
alance. In a missive letter from th
Page 123 and 124:
NNSC to reduce tension in the Far E
Page 125 and 126:
Affairs that work was mainly routin
Page 127 and 128:
2.9 The Parties’ Views of the NNS
Page 129 and 130:
were also invited to get some orien
Page 131 and 132:
negative peace. The defection from
Page 133 and 134:
existence of a neutral commission w
Page 135:
the 1956-57 events a dissolution wa
Page 138 and 139:
3.1 Introduction As we saw in Chapt
Page 140 and 141:
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
Page 142 and 143:
Kim (2003) notes that since the sup
Page 144 and 145:
The military build-up repeatedly ca
Page 146 and 147:
illion in 1967. 106 This extraordin
Page 148 and 149:
As in the late 1950s, the KPA/CPV u
Page 150 and 151:
for about ten years but from the su
Page 152 and 153:
When large-scale North Korean intru
Page 154 and 155:
was foolish; the issue was an inter
Page 156 and 157:
When the 227th meeting proposed by
Page 158 and 159:
incidents had been fabricated by th
Page 160 and 161:
data, that he was not a returning d
Page 162 and 163:
on American and South Korean forces
Page 164 and 165:
14, at about 11 P.M., shortly befor
Page 166 and 167:
number of killed South Koreans fell
Page 168 and 169:
woman who sold eggs in the village.
Page 170 and 171:
October 21, 1966 armed ambush of a
Page 172 and 173:
Before the UNC/MAC at the 289th mee
Page 174 and 175:
harvest holiday) celebration. Accor
Page 176 and 177:
demand was repeated at the followin
Page 178 and 179:
As we have seen, in 1958 Joint Obse
Page 180 and 181:
sequently removed the bodies from t
Page 182 and 183:
to fish in territory that extended
Page 184 and 185:
KPA/CPV convened on August 5, 1966,
Page 186 and 187:
abductees were that North Korean au
Page 188 and 189:
informed of the result when availab
Page 190 and 191:
and kidnappings of fishermen had be
Page 192 and 193:
was shot down close to the Swedish
Page 194 and 195:
in the air. 143 At the 206th meetin
Page 196 and 197:
North Korea over the East Sea 50 mi
Page 198 and 199:
the words of Mobley (2003), a “ca
Page 200 and 201:
outine training mission, with a cre
Page 202 and 203:
lost and therefore flew into your t
Page 204 and 205:
3.6 The Work of the MAC and the NNS
Page 206 and 207:
many armistice violations were comm
Page 208 and 209:
His compatriot Chief of Staff, Majo
Page 210 and 211:
een fighting an ideological war at
Page 212 and 213:
parties, thereby easing tense relat
Page 214 and 215:
among the armistice parties that th
Page 216 and 217:
Nonetheless, the woodcutters report
Page 218 and 219:
estimated its risks. His view is sh
Page 220 and 221:
According to Downs (1999), on the a
Page 222 and 223:
which had not suffered a seizure in
Page 224 and 225:
aggressors.” The “South Korean
Page 226 and 227:
etaliation. Considering the game th
Page 228 and 229:
According to the Swedish NNSC Deleg
Page 230 and 231:
Pak tried to draw out the complete
Page 232 and 233:
North Korea without South Korea’s
Page 234 and 235:
of the 661st Unit of the Korean Peo
Page 236 and 237:
The general reiterated that the ass
Page 238 and 239:
should refuse to abandon their pres
Page 240 and 241:
discuss specific arrangements for t
Page 242 and 243:
of 82 former crew members of the Pu
Page 244 and 245:
Following the signing of the docume
Page 246 and 247:
water zone claimed by North Korea a
Page 248 and 249:
Offensive launched in late January,
Page 250 and 251:
controversial at the top-political
Page 252 and 253:
assassination attempt on President
Page 255 and 256:
Chapter 4 North-South Dialogue and
Page 257 and 258:
NNSC played during the crisis but i
Page 259 and 260:
The October 9 incident was raised a
Page 261 and 262:
side of it not had made a request.
Page 263 and 264:
The outcome was two against and two
Page 265 and 266:
ecorded in Chapter 2 of having an e
Page 267 and 268:
On October 24, the NNSC had receive
Page 269 and 270:
for the first time to acknowledge r
Page 271 and 272:
was going on in Panmunjom.” He co
Page 273 and 274:
South Korea that were a battle for
Page 275 and 276:
Seoul by Yi Hu-rak, Head of the Kor
Page 277 and 278:
egarded as a stronger indication of
Page 279 and 280:
workers carrying out routine work f
Page 281 and 282:
strengthened its war preparations b
Page 283 and 284:
military exercises. The South denie
Page 285 and 286:
y the KPA/CPV held on January 26, 1
Page 287 and 288:
een brought into the JSA and reject
Page 289 and 290:
command are responsible for enforci
Page 291 and 292:
UNC control. North Korea asserted o
Page 293 and 294:
that the UNC and South Korea should
Page 295 and 296:
clumsy and collided with the North
Page 297 and 298:
North Korea admitted that it had su
Page 299 and 300:
none of the crew could be rescued.
Page 301 and 302:
then requested identification but s
Page 303 and 304:
y the UNC/MAC, repeated the “stri
Page 305 and 306:
KPA/CPV Senior Member, Major Genera
Page 307 and 308:
North Korea also proposed to hold t
Page 309 and 310:
maintained quiet discipline, but th
Page 311 and 312:
Assembly, Second Session, convened
Page 313 and 314:
tree should be pruned. That the tre
Page 315 and 316:
As a result of the axe murder, the
Page 317 and 318:
latter’s request addressed to the
Page 319 and 320:
On August 21, work to cut down the
Page 321 and 322:
and made an important contribution
Page 323 and 324:
prevent the provocation. Our side w
Page 325 and 326:
on August 28, the US repeated its d
Page 327 and 328:
Why did the axe murder take place?
Page 329 and 330:
According to Downs (1999), Presiden
Page 331 and 332:
Since on November 15, 1974 steam as
Page 333 and 334:
North Korean defector Kim Pu-sông
Page 335 and 336:
Korean War to protect them from Ame
Page 337 and 338:
North Korea to destroy all tunnels,
Page 339 and 340:
past 25 years had a restraining and
Page 341 and 342:
quo formed a “positive symmetry
Page 343 and 344:
Chapter 5 Continued Tension but Ren
Page 345 and 346:
loped in 1984-85 when a dialogue wa
Page 347 and 348:
areas from the rear of the northern
Page 349 and 350:
in 1981 and accusations of war prep
Page 351 and 352:
of Korea. At the 417th meeting call
Page 353 and 354:
also been raised at two previous me
Page 355 and 356:
secretary meeting held on March 23,
Page 357 and 358:
ground forces which had crossed the
Page 359 and 360:
vessel followed the boat that was e
Page 361 and 362:
under UNC and South Korean control
Page 363 and 364:
The UNC/MAC claimed that the men we
Page 365 and 366:
photographical and physical evidenc
Page 367 and 368:
The North regarded the intrusion on
Page 369 and 370:
the US make this assessment plausib
Page 371 and 372:
opportunity to introduce security-a
Page 373 and 374:
the name of the North Korean Red Cr
Page 375 and 376:
NNSC conference room, as were the f
Page 377 and 378:
In 1987, North Korea forwarded to t
Page 379 and 380:
Korea’s liberation from Japan in
Page 381 and 382:
the UNC/MAC Senior Member called th
Page 383:
counterpart to provide humanitarian
Page 386 and 387:
6.1 Introduction Tension continued
Page 388 and 389:
protest to the South Korean governm
Page 390 and 391:
of terror by the amassing of armies
Page 392 and 393:
and were authorized to have officia
Page 394 and 395:
women were invited to Seoul to part
Page 396 and 397:
6.3 Reactivation of Dialogue and th
Page 398 and 399:
the military demarcation line speci
Page 400 and 401:
1991 Joint Declaration. When in May
Page 402 and 403:
eopening Team Spirit, deploying Pat
Page 404 and 405:
February 1998 were working contacts
Page 406 and 407:
According to Lee (2001b), if the ap
Page 408 and 409:
had invited North Korea to observe
Page 410 and 411:
According to Lee (2001a), since 195
Page 412 and 413:
were informally invited to P’yôn
Page 414 and 415:
Korean peninsula.” 307 In contras
Page 416 and 417:
since November 1984 (cf. pp. 349-35
Page 418 and 419:
the US in reality signed the Armist
Page 420 and 421:
US participated in the war to help
Page 422 and 423:
meeting requested by the North, had
Page 424 and 425:
the new organization demonstrativel
Page 426 and 427:
new peace regime. The UNC/MAC respo
Page 428 and 429:
asked forgiveness for his “grave
Page 430 and 431:
was regarded as a preparation for w
Page 432 and 433:
Armistice Agreement in accordance w
Page 434 and 435:
At the second round of talks reques
Page 436 and 437:
ecurrence, punishment of those resp
Page 438 and 439:
characterized not only the MAC secr
Page 440 and 441:
claimed: “North Korea’s claim t
Page 442 and 443:
6.6 North Korea Expels the Czech Re
Page 444 and 445:
the NNSC expressed its unanimous op
Page 446 and 447:
that it would withdraw on April 10.
Page 448 and 449:
friendly gesture was later interpre
Page 450 and 451:
On February 9, the Deputy Head of t
Page 452 and 453:
On February 24, the South Korean Fo
Page 454 and 455:
oth sides; North Korea’s unilater
Page 456 and 457:
According to the Swedish officer Bo
Page 458 and 459:
Lhotska (1997), for both Sweden and
Page 460 and 461:
However, what Mueller-Lhotska (1997
Page 462 and 463:
evidently with their own consent to
Page 464 and 465:
incident “only serves to further
Page 466 and 467:
As we have seen, North Korea had on
Page 468 and 469:
northern side when they were appreh
Page 470 and 471:
signed the 1994 Agreed Framework th
Page 473 and 474:
Chapter 7 Expanding Relations but C
Page 475 and 476:
with previous periods. The account
Page 477 and 478:
835,838 cases, 832,260 of them on l
Page 479 and 480:
settling serious incidents have hel
Page 481 and 482:
Korean governments began in 1972 to
Page 483 and 484:
from the UNC. The investigation of
Page 485 and 486:
achieve improvements in contacts in
Page 487 and 488:
Agreement should be the basis for o
Page 489 and 490:
enforced. Ten paragraphs remained i
Page 491 and 492:
was no demand for navigation in the
Page 493 and 494:
epatriation of prisoners-of-war was
Page 495 and 496:
were held because of the building o
Page 497 and 498:
In September, four meetings were he
Page 499 and 500:
In 2002 and 2003, joint exhumations
Page 501 and 502:
firing by machine guns had taken pl
Page 503 and 504:
“...to ensure an independent and
Page 505 and 506:
Paengnyông only about 12 kilometre
Page 507 and 508:
In February, Swedish and Swiss NNSC
Page 509 and 510:
7.4 Expansion of Inter-Korean Excha
Page 511 and 512:
Whether this is true or not, two ye
Page 513 and 514:
General Thomas A. Schwartz, stated
Page 515 and 516:
The two Koreas’ different positio
Page 517 and 518:
with the US continue was published
Page 519 and 520:
energy supplies and technical aid.
Page 521 and 522:
335). While the sunshine policy was
Page 523 and 524:
to Kaesông to take place on Decemb
Page 525 and 526:
services from December 1 in protest
Page 527 and 528:
ealize this.” 385 On March 2, the
Page 529 and 530:
“The successful launch of the sat
Page 531 and 532:
the Demilitarized Zone and to the l
Page 533:
the DMZ and observing US-South Kore
Page 536 and 537:
8.1 Contributions of the MAC and th
Page 538 and 539:
enormous damage. Also, it is virtua
Page 540 and 541:
peace-keeping took place in differe
Page 542 and 543:
Otherwise, its mere presence has he
Page 544 and 545:
will remain so until it is replaced
Page 546 and 547:
progress in the military field in p
Page 548 and 549:
The axe murder is the only incident
Page 550 and 551:
South Korea to the US. In the 1990s
Page 552 and 553:
held in March 2009 is hard to asses
Page 554 and 555:
Appendix Ⅰ Maps a) Map of the Kor
Page 556 and 557:
) Map of the Joint Security Area be
Page 558 and 559:
d) Buildings in the Joint Security
Page 560 and 561:
Appendix Ⅱ Text of The Korean War
Page 562 and 563:
Commission. Other personnel shall n
Page 564 and 565:
(c) Cease the introduction into Kor
Page 566 and 567:
prevent unnecessary delays, the use
Page 568 and 569:
whom shall be appointed by the Comm
Page 570 and 571:
33. The Joint Observer teams shall
Page 572 and 573:
ment of its own as it may desire; p
Page 574 and 575:
Sinanju............................
Page 576 and 577:
hand them over to the Neutral Natio
Page 578 and 579:
and shall visit the prisoner-of-war
Page 580 and 581:
prisoners of war shall be delivered
Page 582 and 583:
Article Ⅳ. Recommendations to the
Page 584 and 585:
Appendix Ⅲ To the Stationmaster o
Page 586 and 587:
August 8 At the ninth MAC meeting,
Page 588 and 589:
November 16 At the 89th MAC secreta
Page 590 and 591:
April 15 The UNC Commander in a let
Page 592 and 593:
December 1 North Korea suggests a m
Page 594 and 595:
August 6 At the 63rd MAC meeting, t
Page 596 and 597:
armbands. July 1 The UNC Headquarte
Page 598 and 599:
December 11 At the 90th MAC meeting
Page 600 and 601:
March 3 At the 115th MAC meeting, t
Page 602 and 603:
584 Peace-keeping in the Korean Pen
Page 604 and 605:
June 24 At the 142nd MAC meeting, t
Page 606 and 607:
October 22-23 Premier Kim Il Sung p
Page 608 and 609:
August 19 At 186th MAC plenary meet
Page 610 and 611:
September 30 The “Freedom House
Page 612 and 613:
July 22 At the 227th MAC meeting, t
Page 614 and 615:
Page 616 and 617:
Page 618 and 619:
March 22 North Korea reports that t
Page 620 and 621:
December 30 At the 283rd MAC meetin
Page 622 and 623:
October 23 At the 296th MAC meeting
Page 624 and 625:
1971-1980 North Korea commits altog
Page 626 and 627:
1972 January 26 At the 327th MAC me
Page 628 and 629:
March 12 At the 337th MAC meeting,
Page 630 and 631:
November- January 1974 612 Peace-ke
Page 632 and 633:
Page 634 and 635:
March 21 Defectors Kim Pu-sông and
Page 636 and 637:
August 5 At the 378th MAC meeting,
Page 638 and 639:
1978 The Swiss NNSC delegation is r
Page 640 and 641:
North rejects the accusation. Augus
Page 642 and 643:
Page 644 and 645:
Page 646 and 647:
October 31 At the 422nd MAC plenary
Page 648 and 649:
Page 650 and 651:
April 3 At the 437th MAC meeting, t
Page 652 and 653:
Page 654 and 655:
1991-99 310 corpses of American sol
Page 656 and 657:
December 1991. October 1 South Kore
Page 658 and 659:
January 19 North Korea declares tha
Page 660 and 661:
April Both parties cease to supply
Page 662 and 663:
December 1 South Korea acquires ope
Page 664 and 665:
March 2 At the MAC secretary meetin
Page 666 and 667:
November 14 At the MAC secretary me
Page 668 and 669:
June 26 At the MAC secretary meetin
Page 670 and 671:
June 22 At the seventh round of Gen
Page 672 and 673:
2001 Six UNC/MAC Secretariat-KPA Se
Page 674 and 675:
December The US cuts off oil suppli
Page 676 and 677:
February 25-28 The second round of
Page 678 and 679:
November 7 At the NNSC consultation
Page 680 and 681:
August 8 North Korea blames the US
Page 682 and 683:
Appendix Ⅴ Violations claimed by
Page 684 and 685:
Appendix Ⅵ Types of Violations of
Page 686 and 687:
e) 1990-1993 1990 1991 1992 1993 Ai
Page 688 and 689:
c) 1970-1979 1970 1971 1972 1973 19
Page 690 and 691:
Appendix Ⅷ Types of Issues raised
Page 692 and 693:
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
Page 694 and 695:
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966
Page 696 and 697:
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Page 698 and 699:
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Page 700 and 701:
Appendix Ⅸ Casualties from North
Page 702 and 703:
Appendix Ⅹ Number of Proposed MAC
Page 704 and 705:
Appendix XI KPA/CPV Senior Members,
Page 706 and 707:
No Name Rank Mandate Period Number
Page 708 and 709:
Appendix XIV Heads of Polish Delega
Page 710 and 711:
Appendix XV Heads of Swedish Delega
Page 712 and 713:
Appendix XVI Heads of Swiss Delegat
Page 714 and 715:
Appendix XVII(a) The Neutral Nation
Page 717 and 718:
Bibliography Ahlgren, Kjell. “Ins
Page 719 and 720:
Commission in Panmunjom (Korea) 195
Page 721 and 722:
[KINU], 2006, pp. 17-22. . “Puk h
Page 723 and 724:
Europa Publications. The Far East a
Page 725 and 726:
. Månadsrapport, mars 1975: Bilaga
Page 727 and 728:
Harrison, William. Military Armisti
Page 729 and 730:
. Slurapport: Bilaga: Generalmajor
Page 731 and 732:
June 16, 2003. Accessed December 13
Page 733 and 734:
Edition (2004-2006).] Hapch’am ch
Page 735 and 736:
Means of Firing Power.”] In Kim,
Page 737 and 738:
. “DMZ-nôn ôptta.” [“There
Page 739 and 740:
day. Lerner, Mitchell B. The Pueblo
Page 741 and 742:
Machiavelli, Nicoló. The Prince. C
Page 743 and 744:
Norlin, Per. “Lugnt hos svenskar
Page 745 and 746:
[Ministry of Foreign Affairs.] Prom
Page 747 and 748:
Swedish Group NNSC. Slutrapport H:1
Page 749 and 750:
. “MAC Meet: UNC Hits Dispatching
Page 751 and 752:
Werner, Finn. Månadsrapport januar
Page 753 and 754:
Agreed Framework / 384-5, 452, 499,
Page 755 and 756:
408-409, 431, 456, 472, 522 Chinese
Page 757 and 758:
in, 240, 249-250, 297 Julin, Sven /
Page 759 and 760:
peace, 42, 186, 234, 258-9, 322-3,
Page 761 and 762:
North Korea / 2, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19,
Page 763 and 764:
P’yôngyang / 25, 89, 102, 111, 1
Page 765 and 766:
Ulchin-Samch’ôk area/incident /
Page 768:
Peace-keeping in the Korean Peninsu
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