09-151.pdf

formation takes place nonviolently.” The latter refers to a system characteristic,
that is, a context within which certain things can happen in
a particular way. The test of peace is in the ability to handle conflict,
that is, transforming the conflict by handling it creatively. 5
Secondly, the American scholars I. William Zartman and Maureen
R. Berman (1982) present the “game theory.” It argues that a “zerosum”
situation, referring to the view that what one side gains the other
side loses, characterizes a conflict before negotiation starts. The aim of
negotiations is to change that view and to change the points of dispute
into something that both parties can benefit from. The key to change
from a zero-sum to a non-zero sum situation is known as Homans’s
theorem. It says: “The more the items at stake can be divided into
goods valued more by one party than they cost to the other and goods
valued more by the other party than they cost to the first, the greater
the chances of successful outcomes.” Negotiations are also affected by
toughness and softness, that is holding out and giving in. Toughness
and softness must be separated for discussion, but each must be kept
in mind while the other is being analyzed.
The significance of trust and credibility in negotiations is included.
Trust is one of the main characteristics of a fruitful negotiation,
but it involves the paradox between being friendly and cooperative
and trying to maximize its own benefits. No party to an agreement can
be completely trustworthy since that would put it at the mercy of the
other’s deception. On the other hand, to be completely untrustworthy
would also be impossible: that would destroy the possibility of any
5_ Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization
(London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1996), pp. 2, 9, 14, 30-33, 61, 196-9, 265.
Introduction
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