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32 The economic aspects of tourism Figure 15: Coast structure of a typical Mediterranean package holiday from the UK Source: Lickorish, 1997 Profit (3%) Travel agents' commission (10%) Administration and promotion (9%) Services (transfer) (3%) Hotel Accommodation and food (35%) Air transport (40%) The marketing and distribution of tourist products are more and more carried out by the intermediary of computerised booking systems GDS and CRS (Global Distribution System and Computerised Reservation System). In the emerging and developing destinations what is at stake is access and mastering of these technologies by negotiating with the operators. Those responsible for mobilising demand (tour operators, travel distributors and agencies) control tourism much more than in the past. This dependence is understandable to a certain extent: it is based on the fact that the clients are far from the destinations and so it is difficult to develop national tour operating agencies. It is logical that the biggest tour operators are from the countries that have a lot of tourists to send: Germany, England (Table 5). Some factors have aggravated this situation in the Mediterranean such as the development of over-capacity of hotels that puts the destinations in a bad position when they have to negotiate prices with tour operators, because the prices are pushed down causing the quality of the products to go down too. This could lead to an overall loss of value in some destinations such as Corfu, Crete, and Rhodes in Greece and encourage harsh criticism of mass tourism. Powerful European tour operators limit the scope and the profitability of local operators. Tour operators sometimes conduct agressive commercial policies in order to get the exclusivity in some popular destinations or to negotiate discounts. The rapid departure of tour operators can bring about the decline of a destination, as was the case for Corfu in the 1990s when it went down from 3 rd to 12 th position in the Greek destinations. Table 5: The top 10 European tour operators in 2001 Company Receipts (billion euros) TUI (DE)* 12,8 Airtours (GB) 8,2 Thomas Cook (DE) 7,9 Rewe Touristic (DE) 4,7 First Choice (GB) 3,9 Kuoni (CH) 2,7 Club Med (FR) 2 Hotelplan (CH) 1,5 Alpitour (IT) 1,1 Alltours (DE) 1,1 *14 billions including french T.O. « Nouvelles Frontières ». Source: FVW The dependence on air transport is particularly perceptible in southern Mediterranean destinations and on the islands. The lowering of air fares has been the determining factor for the rise of tourism. In Greece the proportion of charter passengers in the total number of overnight stays went up from 15.7% in 1970 to 56.8% in 1992 and organised groups from 29% to more than 50%. About 85% of visitors to Crete came through tour operators. The destinations have become dependent on the sales policies of the large aircraft companies. The latter are not usually governed by the profitability of a destination where they transport tourists, but by the
The economic aspects of tourism profitability of their flights. In some secondary tourist areas and in emerging destinations it often happens that only one company with high fares has the monopoly, and this prevents the development of air traffic. In other cases, low-cost companies open and close flights very quickly depending on the profitability of these flights and the subsidies given by regional authorities. This type of incertitude concerning air-service for the destinations hinders the planning of tourist development over the medium and long terms. 4. Obscure distribution of tourism revenue Lack of information There is little available information about the circulation and distribution of tourism revenue. This deficiency can be explained both by the specific nature of this sector of activity (scattering of the revenue, informal economy) and by a lack of study in this matter. Although very variable depending on the destination and the country, the situations are influenced by: • The structure of the tourist offer (size of the enterprises, dominance of hotel accommodation or of holiday homes) • The ownership of the enterprises (local, national or foreign) • The local job market situation (availability or shortage of manpower influencing salaries) • The kind of tourists and who organises the trips (individual or group, direct sales or through tour operators) • The good or bad integration of tourism in the local economy (size of the induced effects, recourse to tour operators) • National regulations (property tax, income tax and other taxes, labour laws and redistribution policies) • The type of management of tourism development (land control, local control). The obscurity that surrounds the circulation and distribution of the revenue from tourism does not facilitate democratic and participative decision-making. Information about this is however essential in order to have a policy that lead to a fairer reallocation of the profits from tourism. Indeed, apart from figures on the profitability of the enterprises involved in tourism, it is important to know the social contribution of tourism and therefore to know what share of the receipts stays in the country and what proportion returns to the emitting country. It also means knowing what the repercussions are on the income of the residents of these destinations and on the governments’ finance, what is the proportion for profits, salaries, taxes and, finally, what profits are made at each step in the production of a tourist trip. A large part of this information lies with the tour operators and is not very accessible. A full assessment would require in-depth studies based on the enterprises accounts, information about which is centralised in the tax administrations. Failing exact information, the main imbalances in terms of distribution of tourism revenue can be traced. They are the result of the economic dynamics described previously: dependence of local operators on tour operators and airline companies, development guided by a search for profits from land, insufficient research into the complementarity of economic sectors at local level, price-wars, etc. Two standard models In the Mediterranean, two standard models can be observed. Although they sometimes coexist in a destination, they are fundamentally opposed in terms of the distribution of revenue from tourism. The « land » model In this model, the development of tourism is levered by pleasure facilities. It corresponds to the spontaneous development of the tourist sector and the choice of the tourist facilities is guided by a search for land and real estate profits: profits for rural landowners who sell their land and 33
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PROGRAMME DES NATIONS UNIES POUR L
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DOSSIER SUR LE TOURISME ET LE DÉVE
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2.1. Les risques d’une commercial
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2 Préambule • Une seconde interp
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Les flux touristiques 1. Le tourism
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6 Les flux touristiques visiteurs d
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Une résilience dans le long terme
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10 Les flux touristiques effets, da
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12 Les flux touristiques en Médite
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14 Les flux touristiques domine pou
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16 Les flux touristiques d’une é
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18 Les flux touristiques urbain et
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L’offre touristique 1. La capacit
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22 L’offre touristique Figure 8 :
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24 L’offre touristique Du point d
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26 L’offre touristique Compétiti
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28 L’offre touristique prestation
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30 L’offre touristique nature. Il
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32 Les dimensions économiques du t
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Emploi et formation 1. Quelques don
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42 Emploi et formation que cette pr
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44 Emploi et formation secteur de l
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46 Tourisme, culture et société a
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48 Tourisme, culture et société d
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50 Tourisme, culture et société l
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52 Tourisme et environnement Les go
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54 Tourisme et environnement Ce ph
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56 Tourisme et environnement de 21%
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58 Tourisme et environnement activi
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60 Tourisme et environnement consom
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62 Tourisme et environnement Figure
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64 Tourisme et environnement en hau
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66 Tourisme et environnement Il est
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Dimensions politiques 68 Dimensions
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70 Dimensions politiques Ce modèle
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72 Dimensions politiques L’object
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74 Dimensions politiques Figure 24
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76 Dimensions politiques de l’env
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78 Dimensions politiques de technol
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80 Dimensions politiques Les diffé
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82 Dimensions politiques Ainsi, le
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84 Dimensions politiques consommate
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86 Dimensions politiques demande en
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88 Dimensions politiques Un tel mé
Page 96 and 97: 90 Répondre aux enjeux et faire du
Page 98 and 99: 92 Principales références bibliog
Page 100 and 101: Annexe 94 Annexe Tableau 14 : Part
Page 102 and 103: 96 Annexe Tableau 16 : Arrivées in
Page 104 and 105: 98 Annexe Tableau 18 : Nuitées int
Page 106 and 107: 100 Annexe Tableau 20 : Contributio
Page 108 and 109: 102 Table des illustrations FIGURES
Page 110 and 111: Sigles et abréviations 104 Sigles
Page 113 and 114: TABLE OF CONTENTS Preamble.........
Page 115 and 116: Preamble Preamble 1. Framework and
Page 117 and 118: A traditional tourist destination P
Page 119 and 120: Tourist flows last decade has been
Page 121 and 122: Tourist flows the loss of tourist i
Page 123 and 124: Tourist flows increase of visitor r
Page 125 and 126: Tourist flows Figure 5: The flow of
Page 127 and 128: Tourist flows It is therefore essen
Page 129 and 130: Tourist flows The three countries o
Page 131 and 132: Tourist flows depopulation, has dom
Page 133 and 134: The tourist offer Figure 7 : Number
Page 135 and 136: The tourist offer Hotel occupation
Page 137 and 138: The tourist offer Growing competiti
Page 139 and 140: The tourist offer 5. Winter trips t
Page 141 and 142: The economic aspects of tourism The
Page 143 and 144: The economic aspects of tourism Ano
Page 145: The economic aspects of tourism the
Page 149 and 150: Employment and training Employment
Page 151 and 152: Employment and training year traini
Page 153 and 154: Tourism, culture and society Touris
Page 155 and 156: Tourism, culture and society standa
Page 157 and 158: Tourism, culture and society Pennar
Page 159 and 160: Tourism and the Environment Without
Page 161 and 162: Tourism and the Environment 80 000,
Page 163 and 164: Tourism and the Environment destroy
Page 165 and 166: Tourism and the Environment Figure
Page 167 and 168: Tourism and the Environment 2. The
Page 169 and 170: Tourism and the Environment Figure
Page 171 and 172: Majorca (surface unit) Tourism and
Page 173 and 174: Source: UNEP/ FAO/WHO, 1996 Tourism
Page 175 and 176: Political scope the Société Finan
Page 177 and 178: Political scope 2. The Mediterranea
Page 179 and 180: Political scope Nowadays, tourism m
Page 181 and 182: Political scope development in the
Page 183 and 184: Political scope They just require a
Page 185 and 186: Political scope whether conservatio
Page 187 and 188: Political scope Frame 18: The growi
Page 189 and 190: Political scope Figure 25: Sketch o
Page 191 and 192: Political scope « stimulate a mech
Page 193 and 194: Meeting the stakes and turning tour
Page 195 and 196: Main bibliographic references and s
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Annex Table 15: 2000 estimates and
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Countries Annex Table 17: Tourist a
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Annex Table 19: Average length of s
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Table of illustrations Table of ill
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Countries ISO codes AL Albania BA B
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LIST OF MAP TECHNICAL SERIES REPORT
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MTS 125. UNEP/MAP: Proceedings of t
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MTS 87. UNEP/MAP/WHO: Identificatio
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MTS 48. UNEP/MAP/FAO: Final reports
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MTS 12. UNEP/MAP: Water resources d
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