Introduction to Nanotechnology

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5.5. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBES 131 tensile strength of the polypropylene. A study at the University of Tokyo showed that incorporation of 5% by volume of nanotubes in aluminum increased the tensile strength by a factor of 2 compared to pure aluminum subjected to the same processing. The composites were prepared by hot pressing and hot extrusion. Aluminum powder and carbon nanotubes were mixed and heated to over 800 K in a vacuum, and then compressed with steel dies. After this the melt was extruded into rods. This work is very important in that it demonstrates that the carbon nanotubes can be put into aluminum, and are chemically stable through the necessary processing. The researchers believe a substantial increase in the tensile strength can be achieved by producing a more homogenous and an aligned distribution of nanotubes in the material. Theoretical estimates suggest that with optimum fabrication a 10% volume fraction of nanotubes should increase the tensile strength by a factor of 6. However, the possibility that nanotube walls slide with respect to each other in MWNTs, or that individual SWNTs slip in the bundles of tubes, may mean that the actual strengths that are obtainable will be less than expected. The atomically smooth surfaces of nanotubes may mean that they will not have strong interface interactions with the material being reinforced. On the other hand, carbon nanotubes have been shown to form strong bonds with iron which is the main constituent of steel, suggesting the possibility that nanotubes could be used to increase the tensile strength of steel. Figure 5.26 shows the results of a calculation of the tensile strength of steel versus volume fraction of SWNTs having a 10 nm diameter and a 100 pm length using a formula called the Kelly-@son equation. The calculation predicts that PERCENT VOLUME NANOTUBES Figure 5.26. Tensile strength of steel versus volume fraction of carbon nanotubes calculated by the Kelly-Tyson formula. The nanotubes were 100pm long and lOnm in diameter.
132 CARBON NANOSTRUCTURES the tensile strength of steel could be increased by 7 times if the steel had 30% by weight of oriented carbon nanotubes in it. While all of these results are promising, there is much work to be done in this area, particularly in developing methods to incorporate the tubes into plastics and metals. This particular application, like some of the applications discussed earlier, will, of course, require inexpensive bulk fabrication of nanotubes. FURTHER READING P. M. Ajayan, “Carbon Nanotubes,” Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology, H. S. Nalwa, ed., Academic Press, San Diego, 2000, Vol. 5, Chapter 6, p. 375. P. G. Collins and P. Avouris, “Carbon Nanotubes,” Sci. Am., 62 (Dec. 2000). M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and P. C. Eklund Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes, Academic Press, San Diego, 1995. M. S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and R. Saito, “Nanotechnology in Carbon Materials,” in Nanotechnology, G. Timp, ed., Springer-Verlag, 1998, Chapter 7, p. 285. T. W. Ebbesen, “Carbon Nanotubes,” Phys. Today, 26 (June, 1996). R. Saito, G. Dresselhaus, and M. S. Dresselhaus, Physical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes, Imperial College Press, London, 1999. Scientific American, Sept. 2001 issue (contains a number of articles on nanotechnology). R. E. Smalley and B. I. Yakobson, “Future of Fullerenes,” Solid State Commun. 107, 597 (1998).
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
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INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
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2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
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X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
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2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
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Sodium Nanoparticle Na, Magic Numbe
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2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
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2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
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2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
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A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
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2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
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1 meV 10 meV 100 meV FJ E W 1 eV 10
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3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
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3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
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3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
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3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
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44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
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Tunneling current Tunneling current
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3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter m
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3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
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1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
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CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
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El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000
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2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
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i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
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T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
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NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
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I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
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JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
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1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
Page 92 and 93: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
Page 94 and 95: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
Page 96 and 97: -0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
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Page 100 and 101: . . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
Page 102 and 103: 3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
Page 104 and 105: 4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
Page 106 and 107: 4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
Page 108 and 109: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
Page 110 and 111: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 99 isopro
Page 112 and 113: PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
Page 114 and 115: 5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
Page 116 and 117: 5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
Page 118 and 119: 5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
Page 120 and 121: PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
Page 122 and 123: Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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Page 130 and 131: 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 11 9 investig
Page 132 and 133: 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 121 energy gr
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Page 144 and 145: BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS In th
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Page 177 and 178: 166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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Page 181 and 182: 170 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM M
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Page 190 and 191: 4 h $ 3 7.5. NANOCARBON FERROMAGNET
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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1.4 N 1 1.2 z " 1 0 v 5 h 0.8 0 0.6
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
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7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
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7.7. FERRQFLUlOS 191 FerroRuids can
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FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
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10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 199 d
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s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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8.2.3. Raman Spectroscopy 8.2. INFR
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 205 a
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- r I 520 51 8 v 6 516 a" 51 4 51 2
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 209 i
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v) - C 3 8 600 400 100 0 e e 10 20
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 291 R’ groups
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11.4. POLYMERS 293 Figure 11.9. Ske
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11.5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 295
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M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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11.5. SVPRAMOLECUUAR STRUCTURES 2s
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11 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 303
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BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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FURTHER READING 309 F. J. Owens and
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12.2. BIOLOGICAL BUILDING BLOCKS 31
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314 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS which we w
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316 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Table 12.2
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318 BIOLOGICAL MATERtALS i J / Flgu
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320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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322 BlOLMjlCAL MATERiALS (a) DNA do
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324 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS so each wo
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326 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 12.4.2. Mi
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328 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS tions they
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330 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS hardened f
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13 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES In
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334 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES CA
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336 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES Op
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338 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES ti
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340 NANOMACHINES AN0 NANODEVICES PO
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342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X
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344 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES na
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346 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 31
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348 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -
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350 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES re
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352 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 1
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354 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -1
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A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
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A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
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APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
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TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
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Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
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372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
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374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
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376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
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378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
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380 INDEX length (continued) critic
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382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
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384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
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silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
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388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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