Introduction to Nanotechnology

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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 163 semiconductors, which puts an energy level in the energy gap. A wave guide is like a pipe that confines electromagnetic energy, enabling it to flow in one direction. An interesting feature of this wave guide is that the light in the photonic crystal guide can turn very sharp comers, unlike light traveling in a fiberoptic cable. Because the frequency of the light in the guide is in the forbidden gap, the light cannot escape into the crystal. It essentially has to turn the sharp comer. Fiberoptic cables rely on total internal reflection at the inner surface of the cable to move the light along. If the fiber is bent too much, the angle of incidence is too large for total internal reflection, and light escapes at the bend. A resonant cavity can be created in a photonic crystal by removing one rod, or changing the radius of a rod. This also puts an energy level into the gap. It turns out that the frequency of this level depends on the radius of the rod, as shown in Fig. 6.33. The air and dielectric bands discussed above are indicated on the figure. This provides a way to tune the frequency of the cavity. This ability to tune the light and concentrate it in small regions gives photonic crystals potential for use as filters and couplers in lasers. Spontaneous emission is the emission of light that occurs when an exited state decays to a lower energy state. It is an essential part of the process of producing lasing. The ability to control spontaneous emission is 0.5 I I I I 0.45 AIR BANDS DIELECTRIC BANDS I I I 1 0 0.05 0.1 DEFECT RADIUS (r/a) 0.15 0.2 0.2 1 Figure 6.33. Dependence of frequency of localized states in the band gap formed on the radius rof a single rod in the square lattice. The ordinate scale is the frequency fmultiplied by the lattice parameter a divided by the speed of light c. [Adapted from J. D. Joannopoulos, Nature 386, 143 (1 997).]
164 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS necessary to produce lasing. The rate at which atoms decay depends on the coupling between the atom and the photon, and the density of the electromagnetic modes available for the emitted photon. Photonic crystals could be used to control each of these two factors independently. Semiconductor technology constitutes the basis of integrated electronic circuitry. The goal of putting more transistors on a chip requires further miniaturization. This unfortunately leads to higher resistances and more energy dissipation. One possible future direction would be to use light and photonic crystals for this technology. Light can travel much faster in a dielectric medium than an electron can in a wire, and it can carry a larger amount of information per second. The bandwidth of optical systems such as fiberoptic cable is terahertz in contrast to that in electron systems (with current flowing through wires), which is a few hundred kilohertz. Photonic crystals have the potential to be the basis of future optical integrated circuits. FURTHER READING S. A. Asher et al., Mesoscopically Periodic Photonic Ciystal Materials for Linear and Non Linear Optics and Chemical Sensing, MRS Bulletin, Oct. 1998. I. Chang, “Rapid Solidification Processing of Nanocrystalline Metallic Alloys,” in Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnologv, H. S. Nalwa, ed., Academic Press, San Deigo, 2000, Vol. 1, Chapter 11, p. 501. A. L. Gast and W. B. Russel, “Simple Ordering in Complex Fluids,” Phys. Today (Dec. 1998). J. E. Gordon, The New Science of Strong Materials, Penguin Books, Middlesex, UK, 1968. J. D. Joanpoulos, P. R. Villeineuve, and S. Fan, “Photonic Crystals,” Nature 386, 143 (1997). C. C. Koch, D. G. Moms, K. Lu, and A. Inoue, Ductility of Nanostructured Materials, MRS Bulletin, Feb. 1999. M. Marder and J. Fineberg, “How Things Break,” Phys. Today (Sept. 1996). R. L. Whetten et al., “Crystal Structure of Molecular Gold Nanocrystal Array,” Acc. Chem. Res. 32, 397 (1999).
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
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INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
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2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
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X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
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2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
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Sodium Nanoparticle Na, Magic Numbe
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2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
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2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
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2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
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A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
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2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
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1 meV 10 meV 100 meV FJ E W 1 eV 10
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3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
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3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
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3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
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3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
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44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
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Tunneling current Tunneling current
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3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter m
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3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
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1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
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CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
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El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000
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2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
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i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
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T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
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NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
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I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
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JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
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1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
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-0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
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a 42. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 87 Figure
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. . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
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3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
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4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
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4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
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4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
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4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 99 isopro
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PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
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5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
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5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
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5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
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PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
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Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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Page 177 and 178: 166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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Page 198 and 199: 7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
Page 200 and 201: 7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
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Page 204 and 205: FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
Page 206 and 207: 10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
Page 208 and 209: 8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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Page 212 and 213: s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 291 R’ groups
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11.4. POLYMERS 293 Figure 11.9. Ske
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11.5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 295
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M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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11.5. SVPRAMOLECUUAR STRUCTURES 2s
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11 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 303
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BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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FURTHER READING 309 F. J. Owens and
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12.2. BIOLOGICAL BUILDING BLOCKS 31
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314 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS which we w
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316 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Table 12.2
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318 BIOLOGICAL MATERtALS i J / Flgu
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320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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322 BlOLMjlCAL MATERiALS (a) DNA do
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324 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS so each wo
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326 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 12.4.2. Mi
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328 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS tions they
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330 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS hardened f
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13 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES In
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334 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES CA
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336 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES Op
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338 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES ti
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340 NANOMACHINES AN0 NANODEVICES PO
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342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X
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344 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES na
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346 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 31
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348 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -
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350 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES re
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352 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 1
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354 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -1
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A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
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A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
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APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
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TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
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Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
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372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
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374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
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376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
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378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
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380 INDEX length (continued) critic
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382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
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384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
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silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
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388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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