Introduction to Nanotechnology

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El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000 - 2000 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROMETER B 1400 - 1200 - 1000 - 800 - I I I I I. : '. . . . . :' In p: : I-, '.!:;Po;\ I \ , '.., . - .- - . _- . .- -7 I I I 1 I 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 65 Figure 3.29. X-ray photoelectron spectrometer showing photons hv generated by an X-ray tube incident on the specimen where they produce photoelectrons e- characteristic of the specimen material, which then traverse a velocity analyzer, and are brought to focus at an electron detector that measures their kinetic energy. 439 441 443 445 447 Binding Energy (eV) Figure 3.30. X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) of nanocrystalline InP showing (a) 39,, indium signal and (b) 2p phosphorus peaks. [From 0. Yitai, in Nalwa (2000), Vol. 1, Chapter 9, p. 427.1
66 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES presence of two superposed lines; a main one at 444.6 eV arising from In in InP, and a weaker one at 442.7 attributed to In in the oxide In20,. The phosphorus 2p XPS spectrum of Fig. 3.30b exhibits two well-resolved phosphorus peaks, one from InP and one from a phosphorus-oxygen species. Inner electron or core-level transitions from levels nl to n2 have frequencies v approximated by the well-known Rydberg formula, Eq. (2.16) (3.12) where Z is the atomic number and the other symbols have their usual meanings. The atomic number dependence of the frequency v of the K, line, the innermost X-ray transition from nl = 1 to n2 = 2 .J; = a,(Z - 1) (3.13) is called Moseleyk law. The factor (Z - 1) appears in Eq. (3.13) instead of Z to take into account the shielding of the nucleus by the remaining nl = 1 electron, which lowers its apparent charge to (Z - 1). A similar expression applies to the next- highest-frequency L, line, which has nl = 2 and n2 = 3. Figure 3.3 1 presents a plot of fi versus the atomic number Z for the experimentally measured K, and L, lines of the elements in the periodic table from Z 15 to Z = 60. Measurements based on Moseley’s law can provide information on the atom content of nano- material for all except the lightest elements. The ionization energies of the outer electrons of atoms are more dependent on the number of electrons outside of closed shells than they are on the atomic number, as shown by the data in Fig. 3.32. These ionization energies are in the visible or near-ultraviolet region. An energetic photon is capable of removing electrons from all occupied atomic energy levels that have ionization energies less than the incoming energy. When the photon energy drops below the largest ionization energy corresponding to the K level, then the n = 1 electron can no longer be removed, and the X-ray absorption coefficient abruptly drops. It does not, however, drop to zero because the incoming energy is still sufficient to raise the n = 1 electron to a higher unoccupied level, such as a 3d or a 4p level, or to knock out electrons in the L (n = 2), M (n = 3), and other levels. The abrupt drop in absorption coefficient is referred to as an absorption edge; in this case it is a K-absorption edge. It is clear from the relative spacings of the energy levels of Fig. 3.33 that transitions of this type are close in energy to the ionization energy, and they provide what is called “fine structure on the absorption edge.” They give information on the bonding states of the atom in question. The resolution of individual fine-structure transitions can be improved with the use of polarized X-ray beams. Several related X-ray absorption spectroscopy techniques are available for resolving fine structure. Another way to obtain information on absorption edges is via electron energy- loss spectroscopy (EELS). This involves irradiating a thin film with a beam of
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
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INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
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2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
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X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
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2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
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Page 28 and 29: 2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
Page 30 and 31: 2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
Page 32 and 33: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
Page 34 and 35: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
Page 36 and 37: 2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
Page 38 and 39: A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
Page 40 and 41: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
Page 42 and 43: 2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
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Page 46 and 47: 3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
Page 48 and 49: 3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
Page 50 and 51: 3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
Page 52 and 53: 3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
Page 55 and 56: 44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
Page 62 and 63: 3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
Page 64 and 65: 3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
Page 66 and 67: Tunneling current Tunneling current
Page 68 and 69: 3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter m
Page 70 and 71: 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
Page 72 and 73: 1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
Page 74 and 75: CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
Page 78 and 79: 2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
Page 80 and 81: i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
Page 82 and 83: T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
Page 84 and 85: NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
Page 86 and 87: I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
Page 88 and 89: JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
Page 90 and 91: 1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
Page 92 and 93: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
Page 94 and 95: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
Page 96 and 97: -0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
Page 98 and 99: a 42. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 87 Figure
Page 100 and 101: . . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
Page 102 and 103: 3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
Page 104 and 105: 4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
Page 106 and 107: 4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
Page 108 and 109: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
Page 110 and 111: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 99 isopro
Page 112 and 113: PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
Page 114 and 115: 5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
Page 116 and 117: 5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
Page 118 and 119: 5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
Page 120 and 121: PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
Page 122 and 123: Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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(c) 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 115 Figur
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 1 17 The mech
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 11 9 investig
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 121 energy gr
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 123 stretch c
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5.5. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUB
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- v) 450 : 400 3 350 1 300 : 5 250
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BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS In th
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h 8 0 6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTR
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6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTRUCTURE
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 153 qu
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 155 Fi
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158 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 6
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160 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS w
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162 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 0
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164 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS n
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166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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168 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM i
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170 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM M
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172 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM h
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174 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM d
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176 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM o
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4 h $ 3 7.5. NANOCARBON FERROMAGNET
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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1.4 N 1 1.2 z " 1 0 v 5 h 0.8 0 0.6
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
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7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
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7.7. FERRQFLUlOS 191 FerroRuids can
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FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
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10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 199 d
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s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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8.2.3. Raman Spectroscopy 8.2. INFR
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 205 a
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- r I 520 51 8 v 6 516 a" 51 4 51 2
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 209 i
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v) - C 3 8 600 400 100 0 e e 10 20
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 291 R’ groups
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11.4. POLYMERS 293 Figure 11.9. Ske
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11.5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 295
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M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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11.5. SVPRAMOLECUUAR STRUCTURES 2s
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11 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 303
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BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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FURTHER READING 309 F. J. Owens and
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12.2. BIOLOGICAL BUILDING BLOCKS 31
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314 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS which we w
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316 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Table 12.2
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318 BIOLOGICAL MATERtALS i J / Flgu
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320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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322 BlOLMjlCAL MATERiALS (a) DNA do
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324 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS so each wo
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326 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 12.4.2. Mi
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328 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS tions they
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330 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS hardened f
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13 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES In
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334 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES CA
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336 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES Op
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338 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES ti
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340 NANOMACHINES AN0 NANODEVICES PO
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342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X
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344 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES na
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346 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 31
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348 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -
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350 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES re
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352 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 1
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354 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -1
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A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
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A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
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APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
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TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
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Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
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372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
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374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
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376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
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378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
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380 INDEX length (continued) critic
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382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
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384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
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silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
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388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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Introduction to Nanotechnology

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