Introduction to Nanotechnology

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13.2. NANOELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS (NEMSs) 341 have a resonant frequency 1 O5 times greater, of the order of 20-30 GHz (2-3 x 10" cycles per second). As the frequency increases, the amplitude of vibration decreases, and in this range of frequencies the displacements of the beam can range from a picometer (10-l~ m) to a femtometer (10-l~~). These high frequencies and small displacements are very difficult, if not impossible, to detect. Optical reflection methods such as those used in the micro- meter range on the cantilever tips of scanning tunneling microscopes are not applicable because of the diffraction limit. This occurs when the size of the object from which light is reflected becomes smaller than the wavelength of the light. Transducers are generally used in MEMS devices to detect motion. The MEMs accelerometer shown in Fig. 13.1 is an example of the detection of motion using a transducer. In the accelerometer mechanical motion is detected by a change in capacitance, which can be measured by an electrical circuit. It is not clear that such a transducer sensor can be built that can detect displacements as small as to m, and do so at frequencies up to 30 GHz. These issues present significant obstacles to the development of NEMS devices. There are, however, some noteworthy advantages of NEMS devices that make it worthwhile to pursue their development. The small effective mass of a nanometer- sized beam renders its resonant frequency extremely sensitive to slight changes in its mass. It has been shown, for example, that the frequency can be affected by adsorption of a small number of atoms on the surface, which could be the basis for a variety of very high-sensitivity sensors. A weight on a spring would oscillate indefinitely with the same amplitude if there were no friction. However, because of air resistance, and the internal spring friction, this does not happen. Generally the frictional or damping force is proportional to the velocity &/dt of the oscillating mass M. The equation of motion of the spring is d2x dx M-+b-+fi=O dt2 dt where K is the spring of constant. The solution X(o) to this equation for a small damping factor b is with the frequency o given by (2) X(w) = A exp - cos(ot + 6) 0 = [(E) - ($)2]-lf2 (13.2) (13.3) (13.4) Equation (13.3) describes a system oscillating at a fixed frequency o with an amplitude exponentially decreasing in time. The displacement as a fimction of time is plotted in Fig. 13.7a. For a clamped vibrating millimeter-sized beam, a major
342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X Figure 13.7. Damped harmonic oscillator showing (a) dependence of the displacement of a free-running (no driving force) oscillator on time, and (b) dependence of the amplitude of a driven oscillator versus the ratio of the driving frequency W' to the undamped natural frequency w for different damping constants b, where Fo is the amplitude of the driving force. (Adapted from D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Physics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1960, Vol. 1, p. 31 1 .) source of damping will be air resistance, which is proportional to the area of the beam. For the case of a nanosized beam, this area is very small, so the damping factor b is small. Nanosized beams dissipate very little energy over their vibrational cycles. 5
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
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INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
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2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
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X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
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2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
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Sodium Nanoparticle Na, Magic Numbe
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2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
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2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
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2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
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A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
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2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
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1 meV 10 meV 100 meV FJ E W 1 eV 10
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3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
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3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
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3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
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3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
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44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
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Tunneling current Tunneling current
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3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter m
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3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
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1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
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CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
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El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000
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2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
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i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
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T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
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NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
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I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
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JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
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1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
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-0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
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a 42. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 87 Figure
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. . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
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3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
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4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
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4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
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4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
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4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 99 isopro
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PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
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5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
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5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
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5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
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PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
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Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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1 30 0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 LAT
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(c) 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 115 Figur
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 1 17 The mech
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 11 9 investig
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 121 energy gr
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 123 stretch c
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5.5. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUB
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- v) 450 : 400 3 350 1 300 : 5 250
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BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS In th
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h 8 0 6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTR
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6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTRUCTURE
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 153 qu
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 155 Fi
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158 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 6
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160 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS w
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162 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 0
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164 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS n
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166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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168 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM i
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170 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM M
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172 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM h
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174 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM d
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176 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM o
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4 h $ 3 7.5. NANOCARBON FERROMAGNET
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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1.4 N 1 1.2 z " 1 0 v 5 h 0.8 0 0.6
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
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7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
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7.7. FERRQFLUlOS 191 FerroRuids can
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FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
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10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 199 d
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s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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8.2.3. Raman Spectroscopy 8.2. INFR
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 205 a
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- r I 520 51 8 v 6 516 a" 51 4 51 2
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 209 i
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v) - C 3 8 600 400 100 0 e e 10 20
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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Page 308 and 309: M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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Page 318 and 319: BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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Page 331 and 332: 320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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Page 368 and 369: A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
Page 370 and 371: A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
Page 372 and 373: APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
Page 374 and 375: TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
Page 376 and 377: Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
Page 378 and 379: TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
Page 380: TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
Page 383 and 384: 372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
Page 385 and 386: 374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
Page 387 and 388: 376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
Page 389 and 390: 378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
Page 391 and 392: 380 INDEX length (continued) critic
Page 393 and 394: 382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
Page 395 and 396: 384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
Page 397 and 398: silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
Page 399: 388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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Introduction to Nanotechnology

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