Introduction to Nanotechnology

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3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter monitors the force exerted between Ihc surfacc and the probe tip. The AFM, like the STM, has two modes of operation. The AFM can operate in a close contact mode in which the core-to-core repulsive forces with the surface dominate, or in a greater separation %oncontact" mude in which the relevant force is the gradient of the van der Waals potential. As in the STM casc, a piczoelectric Scanner is used. The vertical motions of the tip during the scanning may he monitored by the interfemce pattern of a light beam from an optical fiber, as shown in the upper diagmam of the figure, or by the reflection of a laser heam, ns shown in the enlarged view of the probe tip in the lower diagram of the figure. The ntomic force microscope is sensitive to the vertical component of the surface forces. A related hut more versatile device called I fricfiorifun-e microscope, also somctirncs rcfcrred to as a JaremlJk-ce mictmcope, simultaneously measures kith normal and lateral forces of thc surface on the tip. At1 three of these scanning microscopes can provide information on the topography and defect structure of a surface over distances close t~ the atomic scale. Figure 3.21 shows a three-dimensional rendering of an AFM image of chromium deposited on a surface of SiO,. The surface was prepared hy the law- focused deposition of atomic chromium in the presence ofa Gaussian standing wave that rcproduccd the observed regular array ofpeaks and valleys on the surface. When the laser-focused chromium deposition was carried out in the presence of two plane wwes displaced by 90" relative to each other, the two-dimensional amngemcnt AFM image shown in Fig. 3.22 was obtained. Note that the separation heween thc peaks, 212.78 nm, is the same in hoth images. The peak heights are higher (I3 nm) in the two-dimensionaI array (R nm) than in the linear QIE. Flgure 3.21. Threedimenslonal rendering of an AFM image of nanostructure formed by raset focused atomic Q deposittan in a Gaussian standing wave on an SiQz surface. [Frm J. J. Mcclelland, R. Gupta, Z. 3 Jabbour. and R. L. Celotta. Awsf J. Phgrs. 49, 555 (199Q.1
58 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES Figure 3.22. AFM image of nanostructure array formed when the laser focused Cr deposition is carried Out in twu standim waves oriented at 90 relative to each other. [From R. Gupta, J. J. McClelland, 2. J. Jabbour, and R. L. CelotEa, Ami. Fhys. Left 67. 1378 (1995),] 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 3.4.1. Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy Vibrational spectroscopy involves photons that inducc transitions bctween vibrational states in molecules and solids, typically in thc infrared (IR) frequency range from 2 to 12 x IO'> Hz. Secrion 2.1.5 discusses the normal modes of' vibration of molecules and solids. The energy gaps of many wrniconductm are in !his same frequency region, nnd can be studied by infmred 'techniques. In infrmd spectroscopy an IR photon hi, is absorhed directly to induce a transition between two vibrational lcvcls E,, and E,,,. where E,, = (11 f f)ho (3.8) The vibrational quantum nuniber IF = 0. 1,2, ". . is a positive integer, and vo is the chamcteristic freqiiency for a particular normal mode. In accordance with theselection rule An = +l, infrared transitions are observed only between adjacent vibrational energy Imels, and hence have the frequency v,. In Raman spectroscopy B vibrational tnrisrtion is induccd when an incident optical photon of frequency hint is absorbed and another optical photon hvtm,L if emjtted:
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
Page 18 and 19: INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
Page 20 and 21: 2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
Page 22 and 23: X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
Page 24 and 25: 2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
Page 26 and 27: Sodium Nanoparticle Na, Magic Numbe
Page 28 and 29: 2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
Page 30 and 31: 2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
Page 32 and 33: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
Page 34 and 35: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
Page 36 and 37: 2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
Page 38 and 39: A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
Page 40 and 41: 2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
Page 42 and 43: 2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
Page 44 and 45: 1 meV 10 meV 100 meV FJ E W 1 eV 10
Page 46 and 47: 3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
Page 48 and 49: 3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
Page 50 and 51: 3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
Page 52 and 53: 3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
Page 55 and 56: 44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
Page 62 and 63: 3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
Page 64 and 65: 3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
Page 66 and 67: Tunneling current Tunneling current
Page 70 and 71: 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
Page 72 and 73: 1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
Page 74 and 75: CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
Page 76 and 77: El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000
Page 78 and 79: 2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
Page 80 and 81: i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
Page 82 and 83: T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
Page 84 and 85: NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
Page 86 and 87: I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
Page 88 and 89: JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
Page 90 and 91: 1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
Page 92 and 93: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
Page 94 and 95: 4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
Page 96 and 97: -0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
Page 98 and 99: a 42. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 87 Figure
Page 100 and 101: . . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
Page 102 and 103: 3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
Page 104 and 105: 4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
Page 106 and 107: 4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
Page 108 and 109: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
Page 110 and 111: 4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 99 isopro
Page 112 and 113: PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
Page 114 and 115: 5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
Page 116 and 117: 5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
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5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
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PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
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Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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1 30 0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 LAT
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(c) 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 115 Figur
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 1 17 The mech
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 11 9 investig
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 121 energy gr
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5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 123 stretch c
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5.5. APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUB
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- v) 450 : 400 3 350 1 300 : 5 250
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BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS In th
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h 8 0 6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTR
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6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTRUCTURE
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 153 qu
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6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 155 Fi
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158 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 6
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160 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS w
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162 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS 0
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164 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS n
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166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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168 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM i
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170 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM M
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172 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM h
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174 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM d
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176 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM o
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4 h $ 3 7.5. NANOCARBON FERROMAGNET
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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1.4 N 1 1.2 z " 1 0 v 5 h 0.8 0 0.6
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7.6. GIANT AND COLOSSAL MAGNETORESI
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7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
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7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
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7.7. FERRQFLUlOS 191 FerroRuids can
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FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
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10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 199 d
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s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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8.2.3. Raman Spectroscopy 8.2. INFR
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 205 a
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- r I 520 51 8 v 6 516 a" 51 4 51 2
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 209 i
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v) - C 3 8 600 400 100 0 e e 10 20
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 291 R’ groups
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11.4. POLYMERS 293 Figure 11.9. Ske
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11.5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 295
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M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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11.5. SVPRAMOLECUUAR STRUCTURES 2s
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11 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 303
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BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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FURTHER READING 309 F. J. Owens and
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12.2. BIOLOGICAL BUILDING BLOCKS 31
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314 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS which we w
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316 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Table 12.2
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318 BIOLOGICAL MATERtALS i J / Flgu
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320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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322 BlOLMjlCAL MATERiALS (a) DNA do
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324 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS so each wo
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326 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 12.4.2. Mi
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328 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS tions they
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330 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS hardened f
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13 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES In
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334 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES CA
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336 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES Op
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338 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES ti
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340 NANOMACHINES AN0 NANODEVICES PO
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342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X
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344 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES na
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346 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 31
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348 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -
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350 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES re
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352 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 1
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354 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -1
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A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
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A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
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APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
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TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
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Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
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372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
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374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
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376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
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378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
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380 INDEX length (continued) critic
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382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
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384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
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silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
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388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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