Introduction to Nanotechnology

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6.1. SOLID DISORDERED NANOSTRUCTURES 149 the optical absorption shifts to shorter wavelengths when the nanoparticle size decreases from 80 to 20 nm. The spectrum is due to plasma absorption in the metal nanoparticles. At very high frequencies the conduction electrons in a metal behave like a plasma, that is, like an electrically neutral ionized gas in which the negative charges are the mobile electron, and the positive charges reside on the stationary background atoms. Provided the clusters are smaller than the wavelength of the incident visible light, and are well dispersed so that they can be considered non- interacting, the electromagnetic wave of the light beam causes an oscillation of the electron plasma that results in absorption of the light. A theory developed by Mie may be used to calculate the absorption coefficient versus the wavelength of the light. The absorption coefficient c1 of small spherical metal particles embedded in a nonabsorbing medium is given by where N, is the number of spheres of volume E, and c2 are the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant of the spheres, no is the refractive index of the insulating glass, and A is the wavelength of the incident light. Another technologically important property of metallic glass composites is that they display nonlinear optical effects, which means that their refractive indices depend on the intensity of the incident light. The glasses have an enhanced third- order susceptibility that results in an intensity dependent refractive index n given by n = no + n21 (6.9) where Z is the intensity of the light beam. Nonlinear optical effects have potential application as optical switches, which would be a major component of photon-based computers. When metal particles are less than lOnm in size, confinement effects become important, and these alter the optical absorption properties. Quantum confinement is discussed in Chapter 9. The earliest methods for making composite metal glasses involve mixing metal particles in molten glasses. However, it is difficult to control the properties of the glasses, such as the aggregation of the particles. More controllable processes have been developed such as ion implantation. Essentially, the glasses are subjected to an ion beam consisting of atoms of the metal to be implanted, having energies in the range from 10 keV to 10 MeV Ion exchange is also used to put metal particles into glasses. Figure 6.18 shows an experimental setup for an ion exchange process designed to put silver particles in glasses. Monovalent surface atoms such as sodium present near the surface of all glasses are replaced with other ions such as silver. The glass substrate is placed in a molten salt bath that contains the electrodes, and a voltage is applied across the electrodes with the polarity shown in Fig. 6.18. The sodium ion diffises in the glass toward the negative electrode, and the silver diffises from the silver electrolyte solution into the surface of the glass.
150 BULK NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS V, battery I salt bath Figure 6.18. Electric field assisted ion exchange apparatus for doping glasses (substrate) with metals such as Ag+ ions. [Adapted from G. De Marchi et al., J. Non-Cryst. Solids 196, 79 (1 996).] 6.1.8. Porous Silicon When a wafer of silicon is subjected to electrochemical etching, the silicon wafer develops pores. Figure 6.19 is a scanning electron microscope picture of the (100) surface of etched silicon showing pores (dark regions) of micrometer dimensions. Figure 6.19. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) picture of the surface of n-doped etched silicon. The micrometer-sized pores appear as dark regions. [With permission from C. Levy- Clement et al., J. Electrochem. Soc. 141, 958 (1994).]
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INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY Char
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CONTENTS Preface xi 1 Introduction
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5.2 Carbon Molecules 103 5.2.1 Natu
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9.4 Excitons 244 9.5 Single-Electro
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PREFACE In recent years nanotechnol
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INTRODUCTION The prefix nano in the
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INTRODUCTION 3 he recognized the ex
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1000 (I) a 900 4 800 a 900 I 6 700
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INTRODUCTION 7 developed before the
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2.1. STRUCTURE 9 mechanics, the res
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X T 2.1. STRUCTURE 11 Figure 2.4. C
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2.1. STRUCTURE 13 Figure 2.6. Thirt
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Sodium Nanoparticle Na, Magic Numbe
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2.1. STRUCTURE 17 of the large anio
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2.1. STRUCTURE 19 other, and high-f
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 21 Conduction Ban
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 23 Figure 2.13. S
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2.2. ENERGYBANDS 25 band at point T
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A X ' Wavevector A Si c z 2.2. ENER
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2.2. ENERGY BANDS 29 bands of Figs.
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2.3. LOCALIZED PARTICLES 31 add ele
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1 meV 10 meV 100 meV FJ E W 1 eV 10
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3 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES 3
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3.2. STRUCTURE 37 Table 3.1. Crysta
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3.2. STRUCTURE 39 Figure 3.2. Two-d
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3.2. STRUCTURE 41 The widths of the
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44 METHODS OF MEASURING PROPERTIES
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 51 types of transit
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3.3. MICROSCOPY 53 Actual diverging
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Tunneling current Tunneling current
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3.3. MrCAOSCOPY 57 and the latter m
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3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 59 From Eq. (3.8)
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1 Average Panicle FWHM Size (nm) in
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CdSe colloidal NCs a = 1.2 nrn 3.4.
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El X-RAY TUBE 8000 - A 6000 - 4000
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2 N I w 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1 .o 0.5 3.
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i 3.4. SPECTROSCOPY 69 NMR involves
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T=220K - 2G H FURTHER READING 71 Fi
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NUMBER OF ATOMS RADIUS (nm) 1 10 1
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I L 7 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 NUMBER OF
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JELLIUM MODEL OF CLUSTERS ATOMS CLU
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1.02 { 1.01 - 1 - 0.99 - 4.2. METAL
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 81 Figure 4
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4.2. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 83 Figure 4
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-0 100 200 300 400 500 600 MASSICHA
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a 42. METAL NANOCLUSTERS 87 Figure
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. . . .. . - . D 111111111111111111
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3 4 2.5 0 cn g 2 0 z d 1.5 t a 9 1
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4.3. SEMICONDUCTING NANOPARTICLES 9
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4.4. RARE GAS AND MOLECULAR CLUSTER
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4.5. METHODS OF SYNTHESIS 97 d Figu
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Page 112 and 113: PULSED LASER BEAM 1 1 1 1 1 I ROTAT
Page 114 and 115: 5.1. INTRODUCTION CARBON NANOSTRUCT
Page 116 and 117: 5.2. CARBON MOLECULES 105 methane d
Page 118 and 119: 5.3. CARBON CLUSTERS 107 -0 20 40 6
Page 120 and 121: PHOTON ENERGY (electron volts) 5.3.
Page 122 and 123: Figure 5.6. Structure of the CEO fu
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Page 132 and 133: 5.4. CARBON NANOTUBES 121 energy gr
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Page 164 and 165: 6.2. NANOSTRUCTURED CRYSTALS 153 qu
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Page 177 and 178: 166 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM f
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Page 181 and 182: 170 NANOSTRUCTURED FERROMAGNETISM M
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Page 198 and 199: 7.7. FERROFLUIDS 187 Figure 7.22. M
Page 200 and 201: 7.7. FECIROFLUIDS 189 Figure 7.25.
Page 202 and 203: 7.7. FERRQFLUlOS 191 FerroRuids can
Page 204 and 205: FURTHER READING FURTHER READING 193
Page 206 and 207: 10- IR f IA -1 8.1. INTRODUCTION 19
Page 208 and 209: 8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 197 1
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 199 d
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s C CTI e 8 9 4( 8.2. INFRARED FREQ
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8.2.3. Raman Spectroscopy 8.2. INFR
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 205 a
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- r I 520 51 8 v 6 516 a" 51 4 51 2
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8.2. INFRARED FREQUENCY RANGE 209 i
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v) - C 3 8 600 400 100 0 e e 10 20
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i E (cm-’ ) 20 c I 1 ID 0 4x107 8
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- ? m v .- - z In C a, c C - .. . .
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Excitatior I [eV]: 2.175 2.214 2.25
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6 100 200 300 Time (ns) 8.3. LUMINE
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400 nm Laser / Free excitons Trappe
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8.4. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ZEOLITE CAGE
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FURTHER READING 225 P. Milani and C
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9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOSTR
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i 9.2. PREPARATION OF QUANTUM NANOS
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9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONALITY EFFECT
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w n 3 2 1 9.3. SIZE AND DIMENSIONAL
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WE) Quantum Dot Number of Electrons
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 245
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9.5. SINGLE-ELECTRON TUNNELING 247
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1 pair section ;- COT. .; . . I. .
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o.6 LWIR: T = 77 K 45" incidence AD
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 253 horizont
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9.7. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 255 applied
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 10 SELF-ASSEMBL
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 259 factor of 2
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(a) (LI (dl 10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 261
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10.1. SELF-ASSEMBLY 263 atoms, as n
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- c v) ._ C 3 2 9 40 c - .- e m v w
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10.2. CATALYSIS 267 where the lengt
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10.2. CATALYSIS 269 are also other
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1600 2 1200 t p - Bi2M020, 10.2. CA
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7 - I 2,330 m .- c r 0 2 2,300 - u)
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10.2. CATALYSIS 275 with a top and
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10.2. CATALYSIS 277 based on the pr
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10.2. CATALYSIS 279 CnHlnfl, which
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I1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND POLYMERS 1
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11.2. FORMING AND CHARACTERIZING PO
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1 1.3. NANOCRYSTALS 285 This expres
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-1 5 0) C a, -1 1 000 300 100 30 10
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 289 Table 11.1.
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11.3. NANOCRYSTALS 291 R’ groups
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11.4. POLYMERS 293 Figure 11.9. Ske
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11.5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 295
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M Et3P OTf M=Pd M=Pt M=Pd, 41 % M=P
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11.5. SVPRAMOLECUUAR STRUCTURES 2s
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11 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR STRUCTURES 303
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BiodegradaWe surface 4 Functional g
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FURTHER READING 309 F. J. Owens and
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12.2. BIOLOGICAL BUILDING BLOCKS 31
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314 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS which we w
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316 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Table 12.2
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318 BIOLOGICAL MATERtALS i J / Flgu
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320 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS Pyrimidine
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322 BlOLMjlCAL MATERiALS (a) DNA do
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324 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS so each wo
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326 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS 12.4.2. Mi
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328 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS tions they
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330 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS hardened f
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13 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES In
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334 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES CA
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336 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES Op
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338 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES ti
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340 NANOMACHINES AN0 NANODEVICES PO
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342 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES X
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344 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES na
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346 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 31
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348 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -
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350 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES re
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352 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES 1
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354 NANOMACHINES AND NANODEVICES -1
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A.l. INTRODUCTION APPENDIX A FORMUL
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A.3. PARTIAL CONFINEMENT 359 limiti
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APPENDIX B TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDU
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TABULATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATER
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Table B.8. Effective masses m+ rela
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372 INDEX amoeba, 3 16 amphiphilic,
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374 INDEX CdS, 9, 130, 213, 216, 36
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376 INDEX dispersion, 277 disulfide
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378 INDEX Ga (gallium) (continued)
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380 INDEX length (continued) critic
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382 INDEX multiple ionization, 93 r
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384 INDEX pi-conjugation, 282, 292
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silica, 269 silica-alumina, 269, 27
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388 INDEX wavefimction (continued)
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