Linking Culture and the Environment

132 Destination and Place Branding
Destination Image
Destination image is one of the most widely used constructs in the tourism
marketing field. Numerous researchers have engaged in the conceptualization
and operationalization of destination image (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991,
1993; Gallarza et al., 2002; Pike, 2002; Tasci et al., 2007). It is not the purpose of
this analysis to review the many studies and definitions of destination image
but rather to emphasize some important observations that may influence
further research and practical applications. Image can be defined as ‘a representation
of the external form of a person or thing . . . the general impression
that a person, organization, or product presents to the public’ (The New
Oxford American Dictionary, 2001). Applied to the destination, it indicates a
perspective from the outside, the tourists or other stakeholders, and a perspective
that may be accurate or distorted from reality, ‘a thing that is actually
experienced or seen’ (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2001). Of
course, in a postmodern world, we are also constructing reality; however, for
the purpose of this paper we consider an image as the representation of the
real. Based on numerous studies on destination image and the above literature
reviews (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991, 1993; Gallarza et al., 2002; Pike, 2002;
Tasci et al., 2007), we summarize, a destination image:
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is a perception by the tourists of what could be experienced at the destination;
takes on different forms based on who portrays that image how, e.g.
induced, covert, organic, authentic, etc.;
is mostly measured on quantitative structured scales;
is measured with adjectives perceived as real by the researcher or
marketer;
has cognitive, affective and conative dimensions;
has a core identity, attributes that confirm the identity and an overall
gestalt;
has dimensions that are sometimes confused with other constructs
(personality, attitudes and behavioural intentions).
Destination image is often analysed through multidimensional scaling representing
the perceived attributes of the destination. These attributes may not
totally reflect the reality of the place. It is our contention that a destination
image analysed by tourists’ perceptions may be useful in uncovering some
stereotypical perceptions or misperceptions, but does not provide reliable
guidelines for the destination marketer to ‘create’ or ‘reposition’ a destination
image. For the purpose of creating an image, marketing researchers and
DMOs have turned towards the trendy concepts of brand and branding.
Brand and Branding
Tourism marketers very quickly adopt marketing concepts and practices.
Branding appeals to marketers because it associates products with value, it
brands or marks a product with significance. The American Marketing
Association defines brand as ‘a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a com-