Linking Culture and the Environment

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Dr A. Spenceley 201 developing countries. Eighty per cent of the world’s poor people (living on under US$1 per day) live in 12 countries, and in 11 of these, tourism is significant or expanding (i.e. over 2% of GDP or 5% of exports; see Table 12.1). A number of potential economic impacts and consequences of tourism that are relevant to this research are outlined in Table 12.2. There is debate regarding what forms of tourism maximize economic benefits. For example, Ashley and Roe (1998) compared package tourists and backpackers and found that although the total spent by backpackers was often lower than package tourists, more of their money reached local people. Research in the Philippines indicated that independent travellers spent significantly more per day than backpackers, but there was little difference in reported spending between domestic and international tourists (H. Goodwin, 2003, personal communication, cited in Spenceley, 2003). The economic impacts of tourism may have social consequences. For example, research on the Pacific island of Tonga implicated tourism as a causal factor in the demand by inhabitants for western products, the gradual erosion of the traditional extended family, increased reliance upon financial payments and increased crime (Koea, 1977). However, social consequences are not always perceived negatively, and there have been instances where indigenous people have avoided over-commercialization by limiting their involvement in tourism, and instead have consciously exploited tourism as a complimentary livelihood to provide social benefits (e.g. traditional healers using tourism revenue to subsidize poor student’s training costs; Poultney and Spenceley, 2001). Table 12.1. Significance of international tourism in countries with 80% of the world’s poor people. (From WTO, 2002.) Country Is international tourism an important economic sector? a Have international tourists arrivals Percentage of grown significantly population living on (1990–1997) b under US$1 per day c Bangladesh Yes ? Brazil Yes Yes 29% China Yes Yes 22% Ethiopia Yes 34% India Yes 53% Indonesia Yes Yes 15% Kenya Yes ? 50% Mexico Yes 15% Nepal Yes Yes 53% Nigeria Yes 29% Pakistan ? 12% Peru Yes Yes 49% The Philippines Yes Yes 28% a International Tourism Receipts of more than 5% exports or 2% of GDP in 1996. Data adapted from WTO (1998) and World Development Indices (1998). b Percentage of change between international tourist arrivals for 1990 and 1997. Adapted from WTO (1997) and WTO (1998). c World Development Indices (1998) and UNICEF (1999).
Table 12.2. Potential economic effects of tourism. Area of impact Employment Local business development Diversified economy Infrastructure Range of consequences Numbers of jobs: tourism is a labour-intensive industry (de Kadt, 1979; Boo, 1990) where jobs are particularly accessible to women (OMT/WTO Secretariat, 2002). Indirect employment may also be generated from locally re-spent income earned by people through tourism (Opperman and Chon, 1997) Low wages: employment options may be menial, with low wages and low skills, with little opportunity for advancement and training of local people (Ruf, 1978) Seasonal job losses: variations in vacation times, climate or temporal attractions may lead to job losses during low seasons (Opperman and Chon, 1997) Supplying the tourism sector: demand for a wide range of supporting products and services (e.g. agriculture, laundry, transport, craft, furnishings, construction), entrepreneurial activity and business development to support tourism may be stimulated (Lea, 1988) Demand from tourists: tourists may develop preferences for destination products during holidays that continue when they return home, stimulating international demand for certain products (Cox et al., 1995) Reducing leakage: local ownership of tourism enterprises and opportunities for those enterprises to purchase supplies locally reduces leakage. Leakage is the effect where a portion of foreign exchange earnings generated is repatriated (e.g. through foreign owner’s profits, imports of equipment, materials, capital and consumer goods; Voss, 1984; Diaz, 2001) Seasonal business: may cause difficulties for enterprises to sustain profits during low seasons (Opperman and Chon, 1997) Improved standards of living: tourism activity may provide complementary livelihood strategies, especially for poor, rural people – who rarely rely on one activity or income source (Ashley and Roe, 1998) Opportunity costs: tourism may be incompatible with other revenue-generating industries such as agriculture or mining. In addition, it may not the most appropriate tool for economic development in a particular area (Mathieson and Wall, 1982) Dependency on tourism: if the local economy is not diverse, service and product providers are vulnerable, and at risk if there is a downturn in visitation (Krippendorf, 1987) Patchy distribution of benefits: benefits are often accrued by small elite (Krippendorf, 1987; Saville, 2001) rather than the poorest people Investment: attraction of private investment to finance infrastructure and supporting business development in tourism destinations, which may benefit local people Taxes: government taxes accrued from tourism provide funds to increase infrastructure investment in schools, health facilities, roads and services such as education, policing and healthcare 202 Tourism and Poverty Alleviation
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TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
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TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
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Contents Contributors Preface to th
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Contributors Kathleen L. Andereck,
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Preface to the 2nd Edition When we
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1 Introduction: Pathways and Pitfal
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 3 1600
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 5 2. Su
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 7 and t
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 9 cause
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 11 acce
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 13 at h
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 15 Shum
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I Frameworks and Approaches STEPHEN
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2 Recreation Ecology in Sustainable
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 21 particularly
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 23 the selection
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 25 Amount of imp
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Table 2.1. Some recent examples of
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 29 Experience an
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 31 tour operator
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 33 References Bl
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 35 national park
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 37 Wall, G. and
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C.P. Dawson 39 the tourism experien
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C.P. Dawson 41 ism, sustainable tou
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C.P. Dawson 43 With these proposed
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Table 3.2. A proposed tourism oppor
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C.P. Dawson 47 level of development
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C.P. Dawson 49 Eagles, P.F.J. and N
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4 Hypothesizing the Shifting Mosaic
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D. Ioannides 53 because ‘to rejec
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D. Ioannides 55 related development
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D. Ioannides 57 including hotel cha
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D. Ioannides 59 the early stages of
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D. Ioannides 61 Acknowledging the n
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Table 4.1. Conflicting development
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Table 4.3. Conflicting development
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D. Ioannides 67 by national or regi
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D. Ioannides 69 further development
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D. Ioannides 71 can be thought of a
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D. Ioannides 73 Issues. Channel Vie
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D. Ioannides 75 (ed.) The Tourism A
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R.J. Payne et al. 77 Background The
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R.J. Payne et al. 79 inland and inc
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R.J. Payne et al. 81 economic, soci
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R.J. Payne et al. 83 auditing focus
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R.J. Payne et al. 85 traditional kn
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R.J. Payne et al. 87 North Communit
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R.J. Payne et al. 89 Table 5.2. For
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Table 5.4. Underlying attitudinal d
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R.J. Payne et al. 93 dimensions and
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R.J. Payne et al. 95 and tourists.
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R.J. Payne et al. 97 Ottawa, Parks
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R.J. Payne et al. 99 Western Lake S
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R.J. Payne et al. 101 Customers’
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6 Development and Evaluation of Sus
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 105 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 107 e
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 109
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 111 p
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 113 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 115 I
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II Tourism, Place and Community R.
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 119 to
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7 From ‘Guiding Fiction’ to Act
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 123 Decli
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 125 Curre
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 127 these
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 129 cal [
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8 Destination and Place Branding: a
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 133 binat
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 135 The m
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 137 their
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 139 Exist
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 141 Fan,
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J.L. Meyer 143 contrast, is an inta
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J.L. Meyer 145 integral to the fiel
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J.L. Meyer 147 summer of wildfires
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J.L. Meyer 149 affection is for thi
Page 162 and 163: J.L. Meyer 151 These studies reveal
Page 164 and 165: J.L. Meyer 153 Rockies’ gold rush
Page 166 and 167: J.L. Meyer 155 References Barbee, R
Page 168 and 169: J.L. Meyer 157 Schullery, P. (1980)
Page 170 and 171: R.E. Mitchell 159 Defining sustaina
Page 172 and 173: R.E. Mitchell 161 Building upon thi
Page 174 and 175: R.E. Mitchell 163 both culturally a
Page 176 and 177: R.E. Mitchell 165 accommodation on
Page 178 and 179: R.E. Mitchell 167 travel agencies a
Page 180 and 181: R.E. Mitchell 169 somewhat in 1997
Page 182 and 183: R.E. Mitchell 171 over the right to
Page 184 and 185: R.E. Mitchell 173 Impacts The surve
Page 186 and 187: R.E. Mitchell 175 Terrorism: severa
Page 188 and 189: R.E. Mitchell 177 would prefer tour
Page 190 and 191: R.E. Mitchell 179 Dense socio-polit
Page 192 and 193: R.E. Mitchell 181 References Arnste
Page 194 and 195: 11 Local Participation and Attainin
Page 196 and 197: K. Horochowski and R.N. Moisey 185
Page 206 and 207: III Emerging Issues in Culture and
Page 208 and 209: 12 Tourism and Poverty Alleviation:
Page 210 and 211: Dr A. Spenceley 199 Poverty tourism
Page 214 and 215: Dr A. Spenceley 203 Similarly, gene
Page 216 and 217: Dr A. Spenceley 205 by tourism comp
Page 218 and 219: Dr A. Spenceley 207 Although some o
Page 220 and 221: Dr A. Spenceley 209 Tourism Benefit
Page 222 and 223: Dr A. Spenceley 211 The third examp
Page 224 and 225: Table 12.7. Increasing participatio
Page 226 and 227: Dr A. Spenceley 215 They recommend
Page 228 and 229: Dr A. Spenceley 217 Goodwin, H. and
Page 230 and 231: Dr A. Spenceley 219 United Nations/
Page 232 and 233: R. Staiff 221 the Management Plan 2
Page 234 and 235: R. Staiff 223 research to national
Page 236 and 237: R. Staiff 225 within the orbit of
Page 238 and 239: R. Staiff 227 The extensive calligr
Page 240 and 241: R. Staiff 229 crafted details posit
Page 242 and 243: R. Staiff 231 8 In a provocative es
Page 244 and 245: R. Staiff 233 determinism) is polit
Page 246 and 247: R. Staiff 235 Rojek, C. and Urry, J
Page 248 and 249: K.L. Andereck and N.G. McGehee 237
Page 250 and 251: Table 14.1. Tourism attitude items
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K.L. Andereck and N.G. McGehee 251
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 261 ment age
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 263 and in t
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 265 Bank, an
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 267 Educatio
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 269 healthy
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 271 1 4 Good
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 273 communit
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 275 The Aust
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 277 Notes ab
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 279 prepared
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 281 from the
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16 Sustainable Tourism in the 21st
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 285 tou
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 287 Not
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 289 wha
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 291 nat
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Index Aboriginal 220-221, 260-265,
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Index 295 Overseas Development Init
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