Linking Culture and the Environment

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Dr A. Spenceley 205 by tourism companies to create and enhance linkages with local people or enterprises that make business sense to the company. The project worked closely with five ‘pilot’ tourism enterprises in southern Africa to promote and facilitate local linkages (Ashley et al., 2005). Over 3 years, the project facilitated a number of initiatives with the pilot enterprises to strengthen local linkages and enhance local economic development. The enterprise activities generated increased local employment, and increased use of local contractors and suppliers, upgrading existing product development facilities and stronger local relationships between the private sector and local community (PPT, 2005). International initiatives for pro-poor tourism Outside the PPT partnership, there is a widely growing perception that tourism can be used as a tool in the fight against poverty. This has been reflected in international initiatives, such as the World Tourism Organization’s (WTO) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (WTO, 1997). The code argues that local populations should equitably share in the economic, social and cultural benefits generated from tourism, and in particular from employment opportunities (WTO, 1997). This agenda was further promoted when Principles for the Implementation of Sustainable Tourism were released by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP, 2001). A year later at the WSSD, the WTO released a paper specifically on poverty alleviation and tourism (WTO, 2002). During WSSD, the WTO in collaboration with UNCTAD (the UN Commission on Trade and Development) launched the ‘Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty’ (ST-EP) programme. The programme aims to alleviate poverty through sustainable tourism by financing research and development, and also providing incentives for good practice (WTO undated). As a contribution to the WSSD, UNEP brought together a consortium of the WTTC, International Hotel and Restaurant Association, International Federation of Tour Operators and the International Council of Cruise Lines to develop a paper regarding the role of the tourism industry in sustainable development. The report noted that one of the main barriers to achieving sustainable tourism had been the inherent fragmentation of the industry and the relative fragility of viable operating margins – especially for the small- and medium-sized enterprises that made up most of the industry. Although these barriers had indirectly led to a deficiency of accountability in both the private and public sectors, the report stated that the tourism sector was increasingly recognizing the need to protect cultures, heritage and the environment, while allowing developing countries to obtain the full economic potential of tourism (WTTC/IH&RA/IFTO/ICCL, 2002). A broader key outcome of the WSSD in 2002 was a reaffirmation of the Millennium Development Goal to halve the number of people living in poverty by 2015 (UN/DESA, 2002). Within this context, a number of UN agencies, private sector associations and NGOs, have developed initiatives to encourage sustainable tourism development. Although they have predominantly prioritized environmental issues, some have taken a more holistic stance to address sustainable development. A number of these are summarized in Box 12.1.
206 Tourism and Poverty Alleviation Box 12.1. Examples of sustainable tourism initiatives from different stakeholders. United Nations Initiatives The United Nations World Tourism Organization Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty programme; One of the programme’s initiatives in southern Africa has been the development of an online community-based tourism directory (Spenceley and Rozga, 2006). The International Trade Centre of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development is a technical cooperation agency whose mission is to support developing and transition economies, and particularly their business sectors, in their efforts to realize their full potential for developing exports and import operations with the ultimate goal of achieving sustainable development. International Trade Centre’s (ITC) Export-led Poverty Reduction Programme (EPRP) is to contribute to the goal of reducing the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by half in the year 2015 and operates through pilot projects in countries having submitted to ITC a formal request for technical assistance in sectors that offer best leverage for poverty reduction: Community-based Tourism (CBT) being one of them. The EPRP concept of CBT focuses on the development and promotion of tourism businesses and services in which poor communities can play an entrepreneurial role (ITC, 2005). Private sector initiatives Tour Operator Initiative (TOI) for Sustainable Tourism Development was launched in 2000 and is hosted by the UNEP. It is a network of tour operators who have voluntarily joined forces to improve their business practices and raise the awareness within the industry. It is a platform to develop ideas and projects to address the economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects of sustainable development within the tourism sector (WTTC/ IH&RA/IFTO/ICCL, 2002). The TOI also drafted Global Reporting Initiative indicators for tour operators’ sector (GRI, 2002a). The Association for Independent Tour Operators (AITO) developed a Responsible Tourism policy in 2001 that prioritizes protection of the environment; respect for local cultures; maximizing the benefits to local communities; conserving natural resources; and minimizing pollution. It is anticipated that within a few years members will have to endorse these guidelines as a condition of membership. Members are assisted to formulate their own Responsible Tourism strategy through a database of Responsible Tourism Advice Notes, available to them on the member’s only section of the AITO web site (www.aito.co.uk). NGO initiatives in Southern Africa Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) is a non-profit organization initiated as part of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and in 2002 launched a trademark that it would award to enterprises meeting FTTSA’s criteria of ‘fairly traded’. FTTSA markets the brand so that tour operators and consumers can choose tourism products that have obtained an independent hallmark of ‘fairness’ (Spenceley et al., 2002). The International Centre for Responsible Tourism – South Africa (ICRT-SA) has a mission to contribute to economic development, social justice and environmental integrity through the development and promotion of Responsible Tourism by: (i) influencing public institutions, the tourism industry, donors and tourists to integrate the principles of responsible tourism into their policies, operations and activities; (ii) communicating the principles of responsible tourism through capacity building, education and awareness programmes to the broadest possible constituency; (iii) initiating and undertaking research to develop knowledge to support the implementation of responsible tourism; and (iv) creating a network of individuals, institutions and tourism enterprises supportive of the objectives of the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism in Destinations. The ICRT-SA is part of a network of organizations in the UK, Gambia, South Africa and India (www.icrtourismsa.org).
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TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
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TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
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Contents Contributors Preface to th
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Contributors Kathleen L. Andereck,
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Preface to the 2nd Edition When we
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1 Introduction: Pathways and Pitfal
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 3 1600
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 5 2. Su
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 7 and t
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 9 cause
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 11 acce
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 13 at h
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S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 15 Shum
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I Frameworks and Approaches STEPHEN
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2 Recreation Ecology in Sustainable
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 21 particularly
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 23 the selection
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 25 Amount of imp
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Table 2.1. Some recent examples of
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 29 Experience an
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 31 tour operator
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 33 References Bl
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 35 national park
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Y.-F. Leung et al. 37 Wall, G. and
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C.P. Dawson 39 the tourism experien
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C.P. Dawson 41 ism, sustainable tou
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C.P. Dawson 43 With these proposed
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Table 3.2. A proposed tourism oppor
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C.P. Dawson 47 level of development
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C.P. Dawson 49 Eagles, P.F.J. and N
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4 Hypothesizing the Shifting Mosaic
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D. Ioannides 53 because ‘to rejec
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D. Ioannides 55 related development
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D. Ioannides 57 including hotel cha
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D. Ioannides 59 the early stages of
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D. Ioannides 61 Acknowledging the n
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Table 4.1. Conflicting development
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Table 4.3. Conflicting development
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D. Ioannides 67 by national or regi
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D. Ioannides 69 further development
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D. Ioannides 71 can be thought of a
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D. Ioannides 73 Issues. Channel Vie
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D. Ioannides 75 (ed.) The Tourism A
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R.J. Payne et al. 77 Background The
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R.J. Payne et al. 79 inland and inc
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R.J. Payne et al. 81 economic, soci
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R.J. Payne et al. 83 auditing focus
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R.J. Payne et al. 85 traditional kn
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R.J. Payne et al. 87 North Communit
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R.J. Payne et al. 89 Table 5.2. For
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Table 5.4. Underlying attitudinal d
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R.J. Payne et al. 93 dimensions and
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R.J. Payne et al. 95 and tourists.
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R.J. Payne et al. 97 Ottawa, Parks
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R.J. Payne et al. 99 Western Lake S
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R.J. Payne et al. 101 Customers’
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6 Development and Evaluation of Sus
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 105 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 107 e
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 109
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 111 p
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 113 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 115 I
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II Tourism, Place and Community R.
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 119 to
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7 From ‘Guiding Fiction’ to Act
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 123 Decli
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 125 Curre
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 127 these
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 129 cal [
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8 Destination and Place Branding: a
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 133 binat
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 135 The m
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 137 their
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 139 Exist
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 141 Fan,
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J.L. Meyer 143 contrast, is an inta
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J.L. Meyer 145 integral to the fiel
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J.L. Meyer 147 summer of wildfires
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J.L. Meyer 149 affection is for thi
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J.L. Meyer 151 These studies reveal
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J.L. Meyer 153 Rockies’ gold rush
Page 166 and 167: J.L. Meyer 155 References Barbee, R
Page 168 and 169: J.L. Meyer 157 Schullery, P. (1980)
Page 170 and 171: R.E. Mitchell 159 Defining sustaina
Page 172 and 173: R.E. Mitchell 161 Building upon thi
Page 174 and 175: R.E. Mitchell 163 both culturally a
Page 176 and 177: R.E. Mitchell 165 accommodation on
Page 178 and 179: R.E. Mitchell 167 travel agencies a
Page 180 and 181: R.E. Mitchell 169 somewhat in 1997
Page 182 and 183: R.E. Mitchell 171 over the right to
Page 184 and 185: R.E. Mitchell 173 Impacts The surve
Page 186 and 187: R.E. Mitchell 175 Terrorism: severa
Page 188 and 189: R.E. Mitchell 177 would prefer tour
Page 190 and 191: R.E. Mitchell 179 Dense socio-polit
Page 192 and 193: R.E. Mitchell 181 References Arnste
Page 194 and 195: 11 Local Participation and Attainin
Page 196 and 197: K. Horochowski and R.N. Moisey 185
Page 206 and 207: III Emerging Issues in Culture and
Page 208 and 209: 12 Tourism and Poverty Alleviation:
Page 210 and 211: Dr A. Spenceley 199 Poverty tourism
Page 212 and 213: Dr A. Spenceley 201 developing coun
Page 214 and 215: Dr A. Spenceley 203 Similarly, gene
Page 218 and 219: Dr A. Spenceley 207 Although some o
Page 220 and 221: Dr A. Spenceley 209 Tourism Benefit
Page 222 and 223: Dr A. Spenceley 211 The third examp
Page 224 and 225: Table 12.7. Increasing participatio
Page 226 and 227: Dr A. Spenceley 215 They recommend
Page 228 and 229: Dr A. Spenceley 217 Goodwin, H. and
Page 230 and 231: Dr A. Spenceley 219 United Nations/
Page 232 and 233: R. Staiff 221 the Management Plan 2
Page 234 and 235: R. Staiff 223 research to national
Page 236 and 237: R. Staiff 225 within the orbit of
Page 238 and 239: R. Staiff 227 The extensive calligr
Page 240 and 241: R. Staiff 229 crafted details posit
Page 242 and 243: R. Staiff 231 8 In a provocative es
Page 244 and 245: R. Staiff 233 determinism) is polit
Page 246 and 247: R. Staiff 235 Rojek, C. and Urry, J
Page 248 and 249: K.L. Andereck and N.G. McGehee 237
Page 250 and 251: Table 14.1. Tourism attitude items
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K.L. Andereck and N.G. McGehee 255
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 261 ment age
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 263 and in t
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 265 Bank, an
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 267 Educatio
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 269 healthy
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 271 1 4 Good
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 273 communit
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 275 The Aust
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 277 Notes ab
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 279 prepared
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 281 from the
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16 Sustainable Tourism in the 21st
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 285 tou
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 287 Not
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 289 wha
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 291 nat
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Index Aboriginal 220-221, 260-265,
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Index 295 Overseas Development Init
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