Linking Culture and the Environment

C.P. Dawson 39
the tourism experiences or opportunities over time (Murphy, 1985; Mathieson
and Wall, 1987; Ziffer, 1989; Boo, 1990; Kusler, 1991; Whelan, 1991; Lindberg
and Hawkins, 1993; Muller, 1994; Gunn, 1994; McCool and Watson, 1995;
Ceballos-Lascurian, 1996; Eagles and Nilsen, 1997; Weaver, 2001).
Ecotourism and nature-based tourism have great marketing appeal to
travelling publics with environmental interests and concerns. Some operators
and tourism areas have used this appeal to attract more tourists and
exploit the concept, but without supporting the sustainability of the social,
economic and environmental conditions (McLaren, 1998; Honey, 1999). Such
exploitation of the mass market appeal of ecotravel and ecotourism, especially
to exotic environments, has been termed ‘green washing’. McLaren
uses the term ‘ecotravel’ to include both ecotourism and nature-based tourism
and notes that:
They offer a participatory experience in the natural environment. At its best
ecotravel promotes environmental conservation, international understanding
and cooperation, political and economic empowerment of local populations,
and cultural preservation. When ecotravel fulfills its mission, it not only has a
minimal impact, but the local environment and community actually benefit
from the experience and even own or control it. At its worst ecotravel is
environmentally destructive, economically exploitive, culturally insensitive,
‘greenwashed’ travel.
(McLaren, 1998, pp. 97–98)
Wight (1993) warns that the view of ecotourism as a marketing opportunity,
or ‘eco-sell’, misses the key principles of ecotourism to manage conservation
and have minimal development in a manner that is compatible, complementary
and sustainable. Orams (1995) argues for the formulation of tourism
management objectives and indicator measures to monitor the evolution of
ecotourism into a more desirable form of tourism. Wight offers eight ecotourism
principles for the development and management of ecotourism that may
be the basis for such indicators:
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‘it should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an environmentally
sound manner;
it should provide first-hand, participatory, and enlightened experiences;
it should involve education among all parties – local communities, government,
nongovernmental organizations, industry, and tourists (before,
during, and after the trip);
it should encourage all-party recognition of the intrinsic values of the
resource;
it should involve acceptance of the resource on its own terms, and in recognition
of its limits, which involves supply-oriented management;
it should promote understanding and involve partnerships between
many players, which could include government, nongovernment organizations,
industry, scientists, and locals (both before and during
operations);
it should promote moral and ethical responsibilities and behaviors
towards the natural and cultural environment, by all players;