Linking Culture and the Environment

60 Sustainable Tourism Development on a ‘Mediterranean Isle’
its use is that it is a model that is ingenious in its simplicity but also its adaptability.
Numerous authors have utilized Butler’s model for a variety of contexts,
and some have offered useful extensions (Cooper and Jackson, 1989;
Debbage, 1990; Cooper, 1997; Johnston, 2006). Cooper (1997) indicates that
the resort cycle can be used in conjunction with strategic planning to develop
a framework for implementing ‘sustainable principles’ (Cooper, 1997, p. 78).
He argues that for every stage of a resort’s life cycle it is possible to outline
the available strategic possibilities that allow the destination to remain competitive.
Cooper concludes that only by adopting such an evolutionary perspective
will sustainable tourism be approached.
Similarly, the resort cycle can be adapted as a conceptual framework for
examining the agendas of various stakeholder groups at each stage of a
resort’s development. This includes players such as national, regional or
local governments, communities (entrepreneurs/developers and inhabitants),
tour operators and other industry representatives, NGOs (e.g. environmental
groups) and tourists. Examinations of the shifting attitudes of
stakeholders towards tourism over time, though rare, are certainly not
unheard of (Ap and Crompton, 1993). Most such studies, however, involve
examinations of a single group’s (normally residents) perceptions towards
tourism over time (Vogt and Jun, 2004; Bestard and Nadal, 2007; Chang and
Vogt, 2008). By contrast, a thorough investigation of the literature reveals the
glaring rarity of studies seeking to compare the respective attitudes of multiple
sets of players as they shift through time.
That the attitudes of residents are likely to shift as a destination matures
has been pointed out by Butler himself (1980). He notes that while inhabitants
of an emerging tourist area are initially excited about tourism, especially
its economic growth potential and its ability to generate useful infrastructure
for the community, eventually their exposure to adverse impacts will make
them increasingly resentful towards their visitors. This parallels Doxey’s
(1975) thesis who argued that when tourism initially appears in any destination
residents are in a state of euphoria. Over time, as these residents become
used to tourists in their midst they turn increasingly apathetic regarding the
sector’s impacts. Eventually, however, they are likely to become increasingly
annoyed due to the perceived disruption they witness in their everyday life.
This annoyance will likely escalate into antagonism (see also Page, 2003).
Researchers have postulated variations of this model. Ap and Crompton
(1993), for instance, argue that Doxey’s model is simplistic, and pointed out
that not everyone in a community will have the same perception towards
tourism at a fixed point in time. For instance, residents’ attitudes will vary
according to their age, or based on whether they are long-term inhabitants
versus recent arrivals. Also, during busy times of the year business owners
are likely to be more tolerant towards visitors than are residents who do not
have a direct economic interest in tourism. Ap and Crompton also believe
that seasonality plays a role in defining residents’ attitudes towards visitors.
That is, during the peak tourist season local inhabitants will be more resentful
towards tourism compared to the off-peak period because they see visitors
as disruptive to their daily life.