Linking Culture and the Environment

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2 Recreation Ecology in Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism: a Strengthening Role YU-FAI LEUNG 1 , JEFFREY L. MARION 2 AND TRACY A. FARRELL 3 1 Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA; 2 USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Virginia Tech, Forestry (0324), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA; 3 Strategic Projects, Programs and Sciences, Conservation International, Arlington, Virginia, USA Introduction Sustainable tourism and ecotourism are two buzzwords that have generated considerable debate in the tourism literature regarding their definitions, attainability, implementation and consequences. Much of this debate since the late 1980s has revolved around the issue of sustainability (Cater and Lowman, 1994; Hunter and Green, 1995; Wall, 1997; Butler, 1999; UNEP and WTO, 2005). Economic sustainability requires maximizing value along the tourism supply/demand chain, as well as addressing important sociopolitical issues like land tenure and governance, to increase tourism revenue for local as well as international and national operators. Understanding the resistance and resilience of ecosystem function in response to tourism development and growth is also essential. A 2005 global assessment found that 15 of 24 ecosystem services were significantly degraded, including decreased fresh water quality, loss of soil nutrients, decreases in fish stocks and loss of forest cover (MEA, 2005). Sustainable tourism has been defined, based on the principles of sustainable development, as tourism development that ‘meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future’ (WTTC et al., 1995, p. 30). Ecotourism, a fast-growing segment within the nature-based tourism industry, is defined by the International Ecotourism Society as ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people’ (TIES, 2008). This chapter restricts its focus to ecological sustainability in tourism and recreation contexts, ©CAB International 2008. Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability: Linking Culture and the Environment, 2nd edn (eds S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey) 19
20 Recreation Ecology in Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism although it is recognized that the concept of sustainability also encompasses economic, political and sociocultural dimensions. One important criterion for evaluating ecological sustainability of tourism is the extent to which undesirable environmental effects of tourism development and tourist activities are prevented or minimized. Previous research has realized that tourism, if unchecked, can be as destructive as other industries (Cohen, 1978). Corporate social responsibility and concerns about the future potential loss of tourism due to overburdened water and sewage systems, coral bleaching and other tourism development impacts have resulted in a number of operational, sourcing and other practice changes across the travel and leisure sectors (e.g. CELB, 2008). Ecotourism, thought to be environmentally benign, can also induce substantial ecological changes at primitive destination areas (Wall, 1997; Marion and Leung, 1998; Blangy and Mehtac, 2006). Many of these areas may be further at risk due to insufficient resources and management attention. Bruner et al. (2004), for instance, revealed an annual total funding shortfall of more than US$1 billion in their study of protected areas in developing countries. Recreation ecology is the scientific study of ecological changes associated with visitor activities and effective ways to manage such changes (Liddle, 1997; Hammitt and Cole, 1998). Visitors include outdoor recreationists, mass tourists and ecotourists. Knowledge of recreation ecology is most relevant in addressing the issue of ecological sustainability of tourism within protected area boundaries. While most components of tourism can result in environmental impacts, the scope of this chapter is limited to visitor activity impacts within protected areas, which play a critical role in sustainable tourism by maintaining biodiversity and related ecosystem services (e.g. pollination, aesthetic benefits), protecting land from more exploitative resource uses, and generating revenues for local communities and for conservation. The objectives of this chapter are to demonstrate the relevancy of recreation ecology to tourism and ecotourism research and management, and to examine how recreation ecology can contribute to an improved understanding and evaluation of ecological sustainability of tourism and ecotourism in protected areas. This chapter begins by providing an overview of recreation and tourism’s environmental impacts, followed by a brief synthesis of recreation ecology knowledge. The connections between recreation ecology and tourism research are highlighted and followed by a discussion of some potential contributions recreation ecology can make to sustainable tourism and ecotourism. The chapter concludes with recommendations for further integration between recreation ecology and tourism. Studies published since the last edition are added throughout the chapter to reflect the recent progress in this topic. Environmental Impacts of Recreation and Tourism The linkage between tourism and the environment is well established in the literature (Farrell and Runyan, 1991; Mieczkowski, 1995; Buckley et al., 2003). Environments provide the resource base essential for many forms of tourism,
Page 2 and 3: TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
Page 4 and 5: TOURISM, RECREATION AND SUSTAINABIL
Page 6 and 7: Contents Contributors Preface to th
Page 8 and 9: Contributors Kathleen L. Andereck,
Page 10 and 11: Preface to the 2nd Edition When we
Page 12 and 13: 1 Introduction: Pathways and Pitfal
Page 14 and 15: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 3 1600
Page 16 and 17: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 5 2. Su
Page 18 and 19: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 7 and t
Page 20 and 21: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 9 cause
Page 22 and 23: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 11 acce
Page 24 and 25: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 13 at h
Page 26 and 27: S.F. McCool and R.N. Moisey 15 Shum
Page 28 and 29: I Frameworks and Approaches STEPHEN
Page 32 and 33: Y.-F. Leung et al. 21 particularly
Page 34 and 35: Y.-F. Leung et al. 23 the selection
Page 36 and 37: Y.-F. Leung et al. 25 Amount of imp
Page 38 and 39: Table 2.1. Some recent examples of
Page 40 and 41: Y.-F. Leung et al. 29 Experience an
Page 42 and 43: Y.-F. Leung et al. 31 tour operator
Page 44 and 45: Y.-F. Leung et al. 33 References Bl
Page 46 and 47: Y.-F. Leung et al. 35 national park
Page 48 and 49: Y.-F. Leung et al. 37 Wall, G. and
Page 50 and 51: C.P. Dawson 39 the tourism experien
Page 52 and 53: C.P. Dawson 41 ism, sustainable tou
Page 54 and 55: C.P. Dawson 43 With these proposed
Page 56 and 57: Table 3.2. A proposed tourism oppor
Page 58 and 59: C.P. Dawson 47 level of development
Page 60 and 61: C.P. Dawson 49 Eagles, P.F.J. and N
Page 62 and 63: 4 Hypothesizing the Shifting Mosaic
Page 64 and 65: D. Ioannides 53 because ‘to rejec
Page 66 and 67: D. Ioannides 55 related development
Page 68 and 69: D. Ioannides 57 including hotel cha
Page 70 and 71: D. Ioannides 59 the early stages of
Page 72 and 73: D. Ioannides 61 Acknowledging the n
Page 74 and 75: Table 4.1. Conflicting development
Page 76 and 77: Table 4.3. Conflicting development
Page 78 and 79: D. Ioannides 67 by national or regi
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D. Ioannides 69 further development
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D. Ioannides 71 can be thought of a
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D. Ioannides 73 Issues. Channel Vie
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D. Ioannides 75 (ed.) The Tourism A
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R.J. Payne et al. 77 Background The
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R.J. Payne et al. 79 inland and inc
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R.J. Payne et al. 81 economic, soci
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R.J. Payne et al. 83 auditing focus
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R.J. Payne et al. 85 traditional kn
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R.J. Payne et al. 87 North Communit
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R.J. Payne et al. 89 Table 5.2. For
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Table 5.4. Underlying attitudinal d
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R.J. Payne et al. 93 dimensions and
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R.J. Payne et al. 95 and tourists.
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R.J. Payne et al. 97 Ottawa, Parks
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R.J. Payne et al. 99 Western Lake S
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R.J. Payne et al. 101 Customers’
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6 Development and Evaluation of Sus
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 105 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 107 e
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 109
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 111 p
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 113 b
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M.E. Johnston and G.D. Twynam 115 I
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II Tourism, Place and Community R.
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 119 to
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7 From ‘Guiding Fiction’ to Act
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 123 Decli
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 125 Curre
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 127 these
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A. Gill and P.W. Williams 129 cal [
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8 Destination and Place Branding: a
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 133 binat
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 135 The m
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 137 their
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 139 Exist
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U. Jamrozy and J.A. Walsh 141 Fan,
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J.L. Meyer 143 contrast, is an inta
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J.L. Meyer 145 integral to the fiel
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J.L. Meyer 147 summer of wildfires
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J.L. Meyer 149 affection is for thi
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J.L. Meyer 151 These studies reveal
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J.L. Meyer 153 Rockies’ gold rush
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J.L. Meyer 155 References Barbee, R
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J.L. Meyer 157 Schullery, P. (1980)
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R.E. Mitchell 159 Defining sustaina
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R.E. Mitchell 161 Building upon thi
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R.E. Mitchell 163 both culturally a
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R.E. Mitchell 165 accommodation on
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R.E. Mitchell 167 travel agencies a
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R.E. Mitchell 169 somewhat in 1997
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R.E. Mitchell 171 over the right to
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R.E. Mitchell 173 Impacts The surve
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R.E. Mitchell 175 Terrorism: severa
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R.E. Mitchell 177 would prefer tour
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R.E. Mitchell 179 Dense socio-polit
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R.E. Mitchell 181 References Arnste
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11 Local Participation and Attainin
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K. Horochowski and R.N. Moisey 185
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Page 202 and 203:
Page 204 and 205:
Page 206 and 207:
III Emerging Issues in Culture and
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12 Tourism and Poverty Alleviation:
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Dr A. Spenceley 199 Poverty tourism
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Dr A. Spenceley 201 developing coun
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Dr A. Spenceley 203 Similarly, gene
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Dr A. Spenceley 205 by tourism comp
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Dr A. Spenceley 207 Although some o
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Dr A. Spenceley 209 Tourism Benefit
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Dr A. Spenceley 211 The third examp
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Table 12.7. Increasing participatio
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Dr A. Spenceley 215 They recommend
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Dr A. Spenceley 217 Goodwin, H. and
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Dr A. Spenceley 219 United Nations/
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R. Staiff 221 the Management Plan 2
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R. Staiff 223 research to national
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R. Staiff 225 within the orbit of
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R. Staiff 227 The extensive calligr
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R. Staiff 229 crafted details posit
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R. Staiff 231 8 In a provocative es
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R. Staiff 233 determinism) is polit
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R. Staiff 235 Rojek, C. and Urry, J
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K.L. Andereck and N.G. McGehee 237
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Table 14.1. Tourism attitude items
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 261 ment age
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 263 and in t
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 265 Bank, an
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 267 Educatio
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 269 healthy
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 271 1 4 Good
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 273 communit
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 275 The Aust
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 277 Notes ab
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 279 prepared
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A. Trau and R. Bushell 281 from the
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16 Sustainable Tourism in the 21st
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 285 tou
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 287 Not
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 289 wha
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R.N. Moisey and S.F. McCool 291 nat
Page 304 and 305:
Index Aboriginal 220-221, 260-265,
Page 306 and 307:
Index 295 Overseas Development Init
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