Linking Culture and the Environment

22 Recreation Ecology in Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism
OS
−
+
−
+
MI
RE
Tourist facility
Tourist activity point
Developed zone
Frontcountry zone
Primitive core zone
Fig. 2.1. Schematic representation of tourism development zoning and amount of
acceptable impacts (OS = opportunity spectrum; MI = degree of management
intervention; RE = relevance of recreation ecology).
Visitor impacts within protected areas are important management concerns
because protected area mandates typically require managers to protect
natural resources or promote visitor experiences that include close contact
with wildlife and undeveloped natural environments. Impacts are also
socially significant since they compromise the quality of visitor experiences
and adversely affect local populations (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). An increasing
number of developed and developing countries have sought to address
these concerns by mandating national tourism or ecotourism strategies
(Edwards et al., 1998). Unfortunately, protected area managers, particularly
in developing countries, often have limited funding and expertise to perform
ecological planning or implement timely management and maintenance
programmes.
Recreation Ecology: the Scientific Study of Visitor Impacts
Although the scientific study of visitor impacts can be traced back to the
1930s, considerable literature has appeared since the 1960s. In the USA, this
body of literature was developed in response to rapid growth of outdoor recreation
activities and associated resource degradation in protected areas such
as national parks and wilderness areas. Studies pertaining to soil and vegetative
changes on trails and campsites comprise the majority of the literature
(Cole, 1987; Kuss et al., 1990; Liddle, 1997; Leung and Marion, 2000).
Visitor impact studies have focused on understanding environmental
changes resulting from visitor activities and the influence of use-related,
environmental and managerial factors. This knowledge has been applied in