Linking Culture and the Environment

84 Tourism, Sustainability and the Social Milieux
Principles such as these form the basis for scientific perspectives on sustainability.
Furthermore, since sustainability is generally a policy or legislative
goal, implementing it will require not only defining but also understanding
cause-and-effect relationships in ecosystems. In these terms, achieving sustainability
requires that the tools of science, scientific knowledge and scientific
method are applied by agencies having environmental management
mandates. Furthermore, since sustainability is first a public goal, achieving it
presupposes that government agencies possess both the mandate and the
scientific capabilities necessary to take an effective leadership role.
Scientific studies of sustainability, even those focusing upon tourism (e.g.
McCool et al., 1998), have generally been based upon the ‘stress-state-responseindicators
model’ (e.g. Indicators Task Force, 1991; Lake Superior Bi-National
Program, 1995; Lonergan et al., 1996), which requires data about a variety of variables
as well as the scientific knowledge to understand (ecological) relationships
among them. Crucial requirements in the model are the establishment of baseline
data to represent ‘normal’ ecological conditions and the identification of
indicators through monitoring may occur. Consequently, this approach, and its
dependence upon experts, is often described as ‘data-driven’. Environmental
non-government organizations such as the World Resources Institute (WRI)
continue to do intensive research using this framework into indicators for biodiversity
(Reid et al., 1993) as well as for other significant issues.
The limitations of an apparently scientific approach to sustainability are
illustrated well by Wilson (1997). He has described the controversy over the
reintroduction of wolves into the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem as a clash
between environmentalists and local people who resent such outside interference
in their way of life. Wilson emphasizes that this clash goes well beyond
wolves and ecology to involve differing levels of access to social power, differing
views of the relationship between humans and nature and differing ideas
about private property (1997, p. 454). In the Yellowstone case, the point of
view of local residents was ignored while the scientific perspective, focused
on restoring ecological integrity, carried the day.
A mixed approach to sustainability, favoured by Canada’s International
Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the World Conservation Union
(IUCN), seeks to engage ‘stakeholders in defining the key sustainability
issues affecting their lives, and [to define] practical ways of measuring change
in human and ecosystem condition related to these issues’ (International
Institute for Sustainable Development, 1997b). This approach contrasts with
the expert or data-driven one common in the stress-state-response-indicators
framework in three significant ways:
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It recognizes the importance of people’s customary and traditional
knowledge.
It views sustainability issues in a bioregional context.
It seeks practical solutions.
The importance of these first two features cannot be overstated. The ‘discovery’
of customary knowledge (i.e. knowledge accumulated by people such as
fishers who use their understanding of nature in economic activities) and