Linking Culture and the Environment

184 Local Participation and Attaining Sustainable Tourism
As the fastest-growing segment of the tourism industry, ecotourists have
a special attraction to destinations in Less Developed Countries (LDCs),
where the greatest variety and extent of unspoiled natural environments are
often found. Consequently, ecotourism destinations in LDCs have become
commonplace in the industry. However, the tourism market in LDCs has
long been characterized and dominated by large, capital-intensive resorts,
owned by, and catering to, the needs of consumptive foreign cultures while
having little or no concern for, and interaction with, the local people.
Unlike many industries, tourism is intimately tied to location – the culture,
ecology and economy of destination sites. The host community and the
natural environment not only provide the goods and services for the tourism
industry but also are the product of it (Haywood, 1988; Getz and Jamal, 1994;
Joppe, 1996; WTO, 2002). As a commodity, the community’s intensive interaction
with visitors is of utmost importance in the long-term sustainability of the
industry since it is the culture and hospitality, along with the natural attraction,
that create the image and experiences which attract visitors (Haywood,
1988). None the less, considerable development activity and income generated
by tourism have not always been compatible with a location’s social and
economic objectives and can threaten the community’s integrity.
The integration of local control and ownership, the meeting of individual
needs and economic self-reliance are goals of a sustainable ecotourism development
strategy (Redclift, 1987; Cronin, 1990; Berno, 1996; Wallace and Pierce,
1996; Schaller, 1997; WTO, 2002). Despite these idealistic goals, prevalent local
social and cultural institutions and characteristics often limit its effective
implementation. Nowhere are these challenges more apparent than in the
rural sectors in LDCs, near national parks or protected areas, typically where
ecotourism projects are being introduced. As a result, and despite the copious
use of ecotourism as a marketing gimmick, very few examples can be found
where the actual goals and essence of ecotourism are fully embraced.
The success of any rural development strategy, such as ecotourism, can
be influenced by outside events (Honadle, 1990). While much of the economic
health of a community is determined by national or regional economic
conditions, the economic vitality of a community can be strongly influenced
by local residents. Humphrey and Wilkinson (1993) note that economic
growth is positively correlated with the degree of local participation in rural
tourism development. Their results suggest that economic growth from tourism
is most likely in areas endowed with scenic natural resources. Betz and
Perdue (1989) concur with these findings by concluding that ‘tourism development
built on the foundation of amenity resources is the logical sensible
strategy to ensure sustainable community economic development’.
The capacity with which a community may participate in successful economic
development projects of any type depends, according to Flora et al.
(1997), on its existing entrepreneurial social infrastructure and social and
economic capital. Furthermore, it also relies on the community’s ability and
willingness to resolve internal and external issues concerning the inequitable
distribution of wealth and power. In political ecology theory, Belsky (1999)