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––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ELECTRONIC INTERVIEWS–––––––––– 33Fontana, A. and Frey, J.H. (1998) ‘Interviewing, the art of science’, in N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln (eds), Collecting and InterpretingQualitative Materials, Thousand Oaks: Sage.Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge: Polity Press.Giese, M. (1998) ‘Self without body: textual self-representation in an electronic community’, First Monday, 3(4):http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_4/giese/index.htmlGorden, R.L. (1980) Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques and Tactics, Homewood, IL: Dorsey.Hayne, S. and Rice, R. (1997) ‘Attribution accuracy when using anonymity in group support systems’, International Journal ofHuman-Computer Studies, 47: 429–52.Henwood, K.L. (1996) ‘Qualitative inquiry, perspectives, methods and psychology’, in J. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of QualitativeResearch Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester: BPS Books, pp.25–40.Johns, G. (2001) ‘In praise of context’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22: 31–42.Joinson, A.N. (2001) ‘Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: the role of self-awareness and visual anonymity’,European Journal of Social Psychology, 31: 177–92.Kvale, S. (1996) InterViews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Thousand Oaks: Sage.Lindlof, T.R. (1995) Qualitative Communication Research Methods, Thousand Oaks: Sage.Mann, C. and Stewart, F. (2000) Internet Communication and Qualitative Research: A Handbook for Researching Online, London:Sage.Mantovani, G. (1994) ‘Is computer-mediated communication intrinsically apt to enhance organizational democracy?’, HumanRelations, 47: 45–62.Michael, M. (1996) ‘Constructing a constructive critique of social constructionism: finding a narrative space for the non-human’,New Ideas in Psychology, 14 (3): 209–24.Moon, Y. (1998) ‘Impression management in computer-based interviews: the effects of input modality, output modality, anddistance’, Public Opinion Quarterly, 62 (4): 610–22.Oakley, A. (1981) ‘Interviewing women: a contradiction in terms’, in H. Roberts (ed.), Doing Feminist Research. London: Routledge& Kegan Paul, pp. 30–61.O’Mahoney, S. and Barley, S.R. (1999) ‘Do digital telecommunications affect work and organization? The state of our knowledge’,Research in Organizational Behavior, 21: 125–61.Paccagnella, L. (1997) ‘Getting the seats of your pants dirty: strategies for ethnographic research on virtual communities’, Journalof Computer Mediated Communication, 3: http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol13/issue1/paccagnella.htmlParks, M.R. and Floyd, K. (1996) ‘Making friends in cyberspace’, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 1 (4):http://jcmc.huji.ac.il/vol1/issue4/parks.htmlPlatt, R.G. and Page, D. (2001) ‘Managing the virtual team: critical skills and knowledge for successful performance’, in N.Johnson (ed.), Telecommuting and Virtual Offices: Issues and Opportunities, Hershey, PA: IDEA Group.Romm, C.T. and Pliskin, N. (1997) ‘Playing politics with e-mail: a longitudinal conflict-based analysis’, in A. Lee, J. Liebernauand J. DeGross (eds), Information Systems and Qualitative Research, Proceedings of the IFIP Conference, London:Chapman and Hall.Rosenfeld, P., Booth-Kewley, S. and Edwards, J.E. (1993) ‘Computer-administered surveys in organizational settings’, AmericanBehavioral Scientist, 36: 485–511.Sallis, P. and Kassabova, D. (2000) ‘Computer-mediated communication: experiments with e-mail readability’, InformationSciences, 123: 43–53.Schaefer, D.R. and Dillman, D.A. (1998) ‘Development of a standard e-mail methodology: results of an experiment’, Public OpinionQuarterly, 62: 378–97.Schmitz, J. and Fulk, J. (1991) ‘Organizational colleagues, information richness, and electronic mail: a test of the social influencemodel of technology use’, Communication Research, 18: 487–523.Selwyn, N. and Robson, K. (1998) ‘Using e-mail as a research tool’, Social Research Update: http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/sru/SRU21.htmlSmith, J.A. (1996) ‘Evolving issues for qualitative psychology’, in J.T.E. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of Qualitative ResearchMethods for Psychology and the Social Sciences, Leicester: BPS Books, pp 189–201.Sproull, L. and Kiesler, S. (1986) ‘Reducing social context cues: electronic mail in organizational communication’, ManagementScience, 32: 1492–512.Walther, J.B. (1996) ‘Computer-mediated communication: impersonal, interpersonal, and hyperpersonal interaction’,Communication Research, 23 (1): 3–43.Walther, J.B., Sovacek, C.L. and Tidwell, L.C. (2001) ‘Is a picture worth a thousand words? Photographic images in long-termand short-term computer-mediated communication’, Communication Research, 28 (1): 105–34.Walther, J.B. and Tidwell, L.C. (1995) ‘Nonverbal cues in computer-mediated communication, and the effects of chronemics onrelational communication’, Journal of Organizational Computing, 5 (4): 355–70.
4 –––– Life Histories ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Gill MussonThis chapter provides some background to the development of the life history technique, itsepistemological traditions, and an analysis of its relevance to organizational research, togetherwith some empirical examples of its application in case studies drawn from research. Thechapter concludes by evaluating the usefulness of the approach, summarizing the circumstancesin which it might best be used, and providing some recommended reading.THE LIFE HISTORY APPROACH ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Life history method focuses on the ways in which individuals account for and theorize abouttheir actions in the social world over time. The subjective interpretation of the situation inwhich people find themselves, past or present, is its cornerstone. It is predicated on thefundamental assumption that ‘if men [sic] define those situations as real, they are real in theirconsequences’ (Thomas, 1966: 300). As such the method prioritizes individual explanationsand interpretations of actions and events, viewing them as lenses through which to access themeaning that human beings attribute to their experience. The method is useful for gatheringinformation about changes in the material and social networks within which people constructtheir lives.Life history method is firmly rooted in an interpretive epistemological perspective, andspecifically in the symbolic interactionist paradigm which views human beings as living in aworld of ‘meaningful objects’ – not in an environment of stimuli or self-constituted entities.In this epistemological tradition, the world is socially produced in that knowledge and‘meanings are fabricated through the process of social interaction’ (Blumer, 1969: 540; seeHammersley, 1989 for a detailed exposition of symbolic interactionism). Through theprocesses of symbolic interaction, different groups come to create and maintain differentworlds, but these worlds are not presumed to be static. Rather, they are fluid and dynamic,colliding and overlapping, continually being created and re-created, changing as the objectsthat compose them are changed in meaning. Thus, the reflexivity of human beings is centralto this perspective and it is this process of reflexivity, how human beings theorize and explaintheir past, present and future, which the life history method seeks to capture.BACKGROUND TO THE METHOD ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Various psychologists have defined self-identity as a life story. For example, McAdams (1989:161) defines life histories as ‘an internalized narrative integration of past, present and
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Page 12 and 13: Notes on ContributorsJohn Benington
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8 ---- The Twenty Statements Test -
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9 ---- Qualitative Research Diaries
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10 ---- Stories in Organizational R
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Table 20.2 Examples of open coding,
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Table 20.3Collective stressors and
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21 ---- Using Templates in the Them
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23 ---- Preserving, Sharing and Reu
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25 ---- Ethnography ---------------
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27 ---- Soft Systems Analysis: Refl
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