Kerala 2005 - of Planning Commission

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110 men in the 1990s. Urban women were the most affected in Kerala and at the all-India level, and rural men were the least affected in Kerala in a ranking of the groups in terms of the intensity of unemployment. However, as seen in Table 7.11, in the early 1980s, women were at a greater disadvantage irrespective of the level of education. By the end of 1990s, the situation changed slightly, as women with higher qualifications experienced lower unemployment compared to less educated men and women. Overall, however, it is likely that women, unable to procure jobs commensurate with their educational skills and preferences, are choosing to be unemployed. Also, women continue in the educational stream in Kerala in the absence of ‘desired’ employment opportunities. The greater opportunity set of male employment, increasingly away from agriculture but with resort to options like migration which call for high degrees of mobility, is certainly a factor in the gender gap in unemployment. Reflecting social norms regarding women’s employment, women also display stronger preferences regarding the kinds of employment they are willing to take up. Nearly three-fourths of the unemployed women in a recent study of women’s education, employment and job preferences reported that they were unemployed because they had not been able to find jobs of their preference (Lakshmi Devi, 2002). Of the factors constituting preference, social status and proximity to the home were the most important. Box 7.4: Gender and Migration: An Overview Given that migration both outside and within the country is a significant employment option for men, it is certainly a factor in the intensity of female unemployment in the State. A Gulf migration study undertaken in 1998 found that only 10 per cent of 3,752,000 migrants from the State in 1998 were women. Significantly, nearly half (46 per cent) of the number of the economically active female emigrants were job seekers before emigration. The corresponding percentage among males was only 27 per cent. The differentials persisted at much lower levels at the destination – 5.6 per cent among the females and 0.5 per cent among males. “Female migrants are better qualified than male migrants, but lower proportion of them get gainfully employed. Migration causes separation of wives from husbands… Few husbands are left behind by migrating wives but most wives are left behind by migrating husbands.” While emigration was essentially a male affair, women had a higher representation among internal migrants. There was also a social group dimension to this. More than half the number of emigrants were Muslims but only one-fourth of the total number of female emigrants was from this group. The Christian community contributed nearly half the number of female emigrants and around 75 per cent of all female out-migrants (Zachariah et al, 2003). Table 7.11: Ranking of Incidence of Chronic Unemployment According to Educational Attainments Rank 1983 Unemployment Rate Rank 1993-94 Unemployment Rate Rank 1999-00 Unemployment Rate 1 Urban Women (M) 52.4 1 Rural Women (S) 45.0 1 Urban Men (M) 44.0 2 Rural Women (S) 50.5 2 Rural Men (S) 36.2 2 Rural Women (S) 37.5 3 Rural Women (GA) 43.4 3 Urban Men (M) 35.5 3 Rural Men (M) 37.0 4 Urban Women (S) 40.5 4 Urban Women (S) 34.1 4 Urban Women (S) 36.9 5 Rural Women (M) 38.6 5 Urban Men (S) 29.9 5 Urban Men (S) 33.2 6 Rural Men (S) 26.6 6 Urban Women (M) 26.0 6 Rural Men (S) 31.0 7 Urban Women (GA) 25.6 7 Urban Women (GA) 22.0 7 Rural Women (GA) 24.9 8 Urban Men (M) 19.8 8 Rural Men (M) 20.7 8 Urban Women (GA) 21.6 9 Rural Men (M) 16.9 9 Rural Women (GA) 20.0 9 Rural Women (M) 20.9 10 Urban Men (S) 15.1 10 Rural Men (GA) 19.9 10 Urban Women (M) 20.3 11 Urban Men (GA) 11.3 11 Rural Women (M) 17.3 11 Rural Men (GA) 9.8 12 Rural Men (GA) 10.5 12 Urban Men (GA) 10.0 12 Urban Men (GA) 5.4 13 Rural Women (PB) 8.5 13 Rural Men (PB) 6.2 13 Rural Women (PB) 1.3 14 Urban Women (PB) 8.4 14 Rural Women (PB) 2.1 14 Rural Men (PB) 1.2 15 Urban Men (PB) 6.7 15 Rural Women (PB) 1.0 15 Urban Women (PB) 0.3 16 Rural Men (PB) 1.3 16 Urban Men (PB) 0.3 16 Urban Men (PB) 0.1 Note: PB stands for Below Primary, M for Middle School, S for Secondary level and GA for Graduates and above. Source: NSSO (1983, 1993-94, 1999-2000 Rounds).
CHAPTER 7 RECKONING CAUTION: EDUCATED UNEMPLOYMENT AND GENDER UNFREEDOM 111 2.10 High Youth Unemployment The National Sample Survey also revealed that apart from the high incidence of unemployment among women in general, the youth seem to have a high unemployment rate. Young men in the age group of 15-25 experience a high unemployment rate while this is true for the 15-30 age group for women. Women have higher incidence than men but the difference is much less sharp as compared to all women and all men. Urban men experience a higher rate of unemployment than rural men, but this is somewhat reversed in the case of women. At the all-India level also, urban unemployment is higher than rural unemployment, both for men and women. 2.11 Educated Unemployed That the problem of unemployment in Kerala is basically one of educated unemployment has already been highlighted. For those below the primary level of education, chronic unemployment is almost negligible, i.e. less than 2 per cent for the last two decades. While it is around 5 per cent among those with middle school education, the rate is not high enough to be characterised as very serious or alarming. In this category, urban women have the highest incidence of unemployment. As educational attainments increased, the unemployment rates declined to well over 20 per cent until the early 1990s and further to around 13 per cent in the late 1990s. The highest incidence of unemployment is among those with just secondary level of education, with rates well above 30 per cent throughout the last two decades. Women experience three times higher incidence of unemployment than this category of educated men. However, even among the highly educated women in Kerala, (graduate and above) latest data reveals that worker participation rates were 37 per cent (urban) and 32 per cent (rural) compared with 87 per cent and 82 per cent, respectively, for men ( Appendix Table A7.3). Further, gender disparity in levels of educated employment (ratio of male graduate WPR to female graduate WPR) has widened from 2.0 to 2.4 in the 1990s. 2.12 Rural-Urban Difference in Kerala and India Technically, it will be correct to conclude that unemployment rates in rural Kerala are far higher than at the all-India level. However, the rural and urban continuum in Kerala will suggest that it is open unemployment. For India there is a significant rural-urban difference giving rise to the possibility of a high magnitude of ‘disguised unemployment’. 2.13 Income Dimension The difference between Kerala and all-India in terms of the time measure of unemployment gives us some clue to the importance of the income dimension. While unemployment at the all-India level, as measured through the NSS, ranges between 2-3 per cent, the incidence of income-poverty was around 30 per cent in 1999-2000. 7 This means poverty is at least 10 times the incidence of unemployment, pointing to the low income-earning capacity of the employed (e.g. low wages of rural labourers) and/or the existence of disguised unemployment (among the self-employed). The contrast with Kerala should be an eye opener. While the latest unemployment rate is around 11 per cent, the incidence of income-poverty is around 12 per cent, i.e. more or less the same as the former. Given the fact that unemployment rates are quite low among the unskilled (indicated by low levels of education), the phenomenon of unemployment is very weakly, if at all, associated with poverty. This could be the case given the high rate of wages of rural labourers and the possible low level of disguised unemployed. However, more broader measures of unemployment indicate that there could be considerable underemployment in the sense of less number of days of work, especially of those in casual employment. This, in fact, is the case. 2.14 Understanding the Problem of Educated Unemployed The 2003 survey attempted a measurement of unemployment based on the current status of the sample population at the time of survey, though such measurement was not its primary focus. It was found that 45 per cent of those in the labour force were unemployed. However, if we remove students (who are also seeking work) from this group, it comes down to around 38 per cent. By any interpretation, this is a very high figure. That educated unemployment is concentrated among the youth has also been confirmed by our primary survey of 2003. In general, it is also concentrated among those with lower educational qualifications (10 or 12 years of school education only) but not necessarily so. Those with degree 7 The incidence of poverty as per official estimates was reported as 26 per cent. However, there has been a debate on the methodological aspects of this estimation. The unofficial estimate is 30 per cent. See, e.g. Deaton and Dreze (2003).
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Human Development Report 2005 KERAL
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ii © Copyright 2006 Government of
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iv Location of Kerala
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vi Foreword Kerala has achieved int
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viii Message I have immense pleasur
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x It was at the invitation of the K
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xii It should be noted that the CDS
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xiv CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10
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xvi CHAPTER 4 4.1 District-wise Hum
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xviii List of Figures Figure No. Fi
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xx List of Maps Map No. Map Title P
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xxii INCLEN International Clinical
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xxiv Marumakkatayam Mavilan Nambudi
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2 that base, but primarily deals wi
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4 further improvement on the human
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6 functions are intimately related
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8 2. Present Day Kerala: A Profile
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10 to introduce the modern system o
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12 the nationalist movement followe
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14 2.2.5 The Post-Independence Peri
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16 In more recent years, however, o
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18 was also a compelling internal d
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20 2. Demographic and Health Indica
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22 Table 2.3: Overall Sex Ratio and
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24 Table 2.5: Marriage Indicators b
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CHAPTER 2 ASSESSING DEVELOPMENT: SO
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CHAPTER 3 ASSESSING DEVELOPMENT: TH
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CHAPTER 10 BY WAY OF CONCLUSION: SU
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TECHNICAL NOTE 169 An index has bee
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TECHNICAL NOTE 171 Table 3: Gender
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TECHNICAL NOTE 173 source is consid
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DISTRICT PROFILES 175 Kollam Indice
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DISTRICT PROFILES 177 Alappuzha Ind
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DISTRICT PROFILES 179 Idukki Indice
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DISTRICT PROFILES 181 Thrissur Indi
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DISTRICT PROFILES 183 Malappuram In
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DISTRICT PROFILES 185 Wayanad Indic
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DISTRICT PROFILES 187 Kasaragod Ind
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REFERENCES 189 Bloom, D. E. & Willi
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REFERENCES 191 Halliburton, Murphy
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REFERENCES 193 Keynes, J. M. (1930)
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REFERENCES 195 Nelson, Nici and Wri
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REFERENCES 197 Sen, A. (1999) Devel
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199 List of Background Papers Achin
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