Changing public space

wanted to promote their cities. Most of the interviewed public-sector representatives stated that
they aimed to improve the competitive position of their city by upgrading urban public space
and implementing other city marketing strategies. Therefore, the cases also show characteristics
of a typical entrepreneurial city, as discussed in Section 4.2.2.
Rotterdam can be qualified as entrepreneurial city because it has a highly active local
government that has borne the main risks in brokering a range of entrepreneurial projects. The
city has advertised itself by hosting many events and becoming City of Architecture in 2007. Its
policy has helped to establish retail developments such as the construction of the Beurstraverse
and to promote a cultural cluster at the Schouwburgplein. The interviews revealed that the
redevelopment projects of the 1990s were mainly aimed at creating public spaces as showcases by
using a mixture of distinctive design schemes, like the hoisting cranes at the Schouwburgplein.
By making both architecture and public space appealing, the city hoped to distinguish itself
among other large Dutch cities. Its current urban policy is mainly directed to renewing public
space to make Rotterdam a more attractive residential city.
The other cases show similar entrepreneurial characteristics. Dordrecht experienced a
decrease in the number of people visiting its city centre in the 1990s. It had lost its attraction as
main centre of the region. Residents of neighbouring towns such as Papendrecht preferred to go
to Rotterdam and Breda to do their shopping. To improve its competitive position, Dordrecht
had to redevelop its city centre thoroughly and promote itself as city of retail and events. It seems
to have been successful: the numbers of visitors have increased and it has been selected as city of
events in 2003. Enschede’s policy is similar in aim and content. According to our informants,
the improvement of the city’s competitive position was the main goal of redeveloping the Van
Heekplein and Stadserf. The city also had to deal with diminishing numbers of visitors due to
competition of neighbouring cities such as Hengelo and Almelo, and Münster and Gronau
in Germany. Some of these cities had upgraded their centres and became attractive retail
destinations. Enschede wanted to re-establish its number-one position in the cross-border
region. ’s-Hertogenbosch aimed to improve public space as social meeting point by making it
hospitable, well designed, and safe. However, its redevelopment policy also acknowledged the
function of public space as economic generator and image-booster: “Together with the ‘walls’
they [public spaces] determine the atmosphere, image and liveliness of the city centre. The
city centre is like a business card and determines the image of the city to a large extent …”
(Gemeente ’s-Hertogenbosch, 1993: 12, translation from Dutch by the author).
Some commentators of redevelopment policies find that they are too much territorially focused.
Urbanist Christine Boyer, for example, stated that: “I am very critical about the beautification of
certain parts in the city without looking at the locations in between …” (In interview with Tan,
2006: 114). However, the urban policies of our cases show that redevelopment is not limited to
the research objects only. The four cities have rather applied a comprehensive policy approach;
redeveloping the city centre as a whole rather than only particular showcases. Their approach is
characterised by the use of similar materials throughout the city to create a coherent entity, give
it identity, to ease the visitor’s orientation, and to show that the whole city centre is important
rather than only its so-called ‘pearls’. In addition, the use of similar designs and materials avoids
high construction costs and possible difficulties of managing different kinds of public spaces.
Dordrecht scheduled the redevelopment of most of its historic core within a time span of only
five years (although in reality the process took longer due to air quality legislation and fiscal
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