Changing public space

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after the master plan was finished. With hindsight, Rijnboutt acknowledged that the latter is preferable: You cannot supervise and design at the same time. I have tried it, but felt very unhappy. It is way too complicated to arbitrate between the interests of different architects, if you also have your own interest. Obviously, you do influence a design to a large extent as a supervisor, but more on the level of a director or conductor of an orchestra. (…) As supervisor, I am the conductor that has to interpret and execute the compositions of others …. (Rijnboutt, cited by Koster, 2001: 9, translation from Dutch by the author) As discussed in Section 1.4, the number of actors involved in the redevelopment of Dutch public space has risen in the last decades. To structure the complicated processes, a directing figure has become more and more indispensable (Van Dijk, 2001). The local government is not always willing or capable of fulfilling this task on its own, for example because it lacks the required experience of dealing with large-scale redevelopments. The architect can assist the local government in directing the redevelopment process by mediating between the government and the designers. But there are other possible process coordinators. Enschede’s local government decided to call in the expertise of management consultancy Twijnstra Gudde during the decision-making phase and engineering consultancy DHV throughout the actual redevelopment of the Van Heekplein. As one of Enschede’s public-sector representatives commented: We hired experts of Twijnstra Gudde and lawyers of Loyens Loeff, etcetera. You don’t necessarily want to have those kinds of experts in house. You shouldn’t want that, that would cost too much and you don’t use them to the fullest extent. You have to call those people in from the market whenever you need them, and let them go after the project is finished. (Public-sector representative II) DHV assisted the local government as executive by making the contracts with each individual actor regarding the contribution to the construction of the underground parking garage and by leading the meetings between the different parties. The opinions about the performance of these external experts were mixed. One informant, for example, argued: Without DHV this [the redevelopment of the Van Heekplein] would not have been possible. However, I have never actually researched it, but I can imagine that if you would add up all the bills of the involved advisors… I can already tell that a similar development could have been made with substantial lower costs. (Designer III) In sum, there have been other actors who have influenced the redevelopment of the PPP squares in addition to the three key players discussed in Section 4.3. This includes architects and consultancy agencies, who act as supervisors and advisors in the redevelopment process. However, these assistants were all in service of the local government and/or the developers and investors, who therefore remain the key principals in the redevelopment of the research objects. 8.3 Effects of private-sector involvement Because the private sector is increasingly involved in the redevelopment of public space, it is important to look at the potential consequences of its involvement. We have formulated four possible effects of private-sector involvement derived from the literature review in Section 4.4. These are: 1) an increase in the available budget for the design and management of public space, 170
2) a decrease in the free access of public space, 3) more coherence between public space and the surrounding buildings, and 4) a more complicated redevelopment process (i.e., longer duration, more compromises). These possible effects are discussed with respect to the four research objects in which the private sector was actually involved. Again, the four publicly realised squares (Schouwburgplein, Grote Markt, Markt, and Oude Markt) are only referred to when illustrative for the redevelopment of the PPP squares. 8.3.1 Budget Section 4.4.1 described three different modes of the private sector’s financial contribution to the redevelopment of public space: direct, semi-direct, and indirect. The situation of direct financial contribution is applicable to the Beurstraverse in Rotterdam. As described earlier, it is developed, owned, and managed by a consortium including the local government, ING Bank, and C&A’s pension fund Focas. The financial contribution to the redevelopment differed per member. The local government participated for 21 million guilders (9.52 million euro), the equivalent of the land value of the Beursplein area at the time. The private parties financed the other 7/8 of the total costs. This included the costs of the construction of the shops, but also the design of public space in the form of the sunken mall. The management costs of the Beurstraverse, including maintenance and surveillance, are shared in a similar manner among the consortium members. It is thus a good example of a public(ly accessible) space that is developed and managed by means of direct financial contributions of the private sector. Private parties can also boost the municipal budget for the project (Section 4.4.1). One of the interviewed representatives of the private sector indicated that his organisation occasionally increases the budget available for redeveloping the public space in front of its property. However, this form of voluntary, semi-direct contribution hardly occurs in general. Special assessments that force private parties to contribute were also not applied in the four PPP squares. However, Enschede has levied a tax to redevelop other parts of the city centre including the Oude Markt (Section 6.4.2). During the research, it became clear that such special assessments are highly contested. The local entrepreneurs of the Dutch city Breda appealed against their compulsory contributions to the redevelopment of the city centre. Their argument was that special assessments can only be charged when improvements increase the value of their real estate, for example by upgrading the sewer or electricity network but not by beautifying public space. The Dutch Retail Council (RND) supported their view: “Nowadays, we observe more and more that ‘embellishments’ are being recouped from the owners of retail premises, of which we seriously wonder if it is all that pretty and necessary …” (RND, 2007, translation from Dutch by the author). The court ruled in favour of the entrepreneurs in July 2005 and stated that shopkeepers do not have to pay contributions unless there is a crucial change in the design, nature, or extent of their immediate surroundings (RND, 2007). In future redevelopment projects, semi-direct contributions like those used for redeveloping the Oude Markt will thus probably become rare. The third mode of private-sector involvement refers to situations in which the local government redevelops public space with the development yield raised through the sale of former public space. Such an indirect financial contribution has been applied at the Statenplein, Van Heekplein, and Loeffplein (Table 8.3). The Statenplein was reduced in size by the construction of the Nieuwe Blok. The municipality owned the land, which was sold to the private sector to be developed and managed (by respectively Multi and Achmea). At the Van Heekplein, the private actors also had to purchase municipal land to enlarge their property. This not only included land 171
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Changing public space The recent re
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Changing public space
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Netherlands Geographical Studies 37
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Contents Figures 9 Tables 11 Voorwo
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7 Fear and fantasy in the cases 147
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Figures 1.1 Outline of the thesis 2
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Tables 2.1 Development of European
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Voorwoord Al reizend ervaart men he
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1 Changing role of public space in
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23 per cent of the geographical pub
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Mentzel (1993: 104):* the place whe
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home country but also evaluate publ
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1. How have the design and manageme
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and agency as complementary forces
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of public space, it could also make
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2 Development and typology of Dutch
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periods, the table illustrates the
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Figure 2.1 The Vismarkt (fish marke
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1985 on behest of the communist lea
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Figure 2.2 Neude in Utrecht in 1989
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(Prak, 2002; Meyer et al., 2006). B
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ecause its situation has altered th
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connection can also be less clear-c
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can also explain why certain square
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3 Current trends in the design and
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Figure 3.1 Sign of CCTV in Barcelon
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easy access (Lofland, 1998). This c
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how entertainment has gone through
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Figure 3.2 The Beestenmarkt in Delf
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Dynamics in production structures
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surveillance cameras, their operato
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at redeveloped derelict sites that
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4 Private-sector involvement in the
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urban policy in the 1980s after an
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(1989) defines as the transformatio
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3. A shift from public sector to pr
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through a blend of architectural de
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4.3.1 Role and objectives of local
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uildings and to emphasise that they
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increase in the number of rules or
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for the dispossessed, which Mitchel
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process (i.e., longer duration, mor
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5 Research design and methodology I
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Figure 5.1 Cultural square: Museump
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(Slager, 2007). There are also hybr
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5.2.2 Inventory of Dutch city squar
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Table 5.3 Research objects in the n
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Appendix C consists of an interview
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concepts have been specified in six
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Figure 5.7 Permanent stage on the G
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6 Urban policy and spatial structur
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document to stimulate the diversifi
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six museums in the area, which were
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emphasises the need for well-connec
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Figure 6.2 Schouwburgplein Central
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Table 6.3 Timeline of developments
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Figure 6.4 Beurstraverse Bijenkorf
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Table 6.4 Policies and changes in p
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The Spuiboulevard was the first pro
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Table 6.5 Timeline of developments
Page 121 and 122: is unclear when the real redevelopm
Page 123 and 124: Figure 6.9 Statenplein Scheffersple
Page 125 and 126: success to a strong project leader,
Page 127 and 128: 6.4.1 Policy and structure in Ensch
Page 129 and 130: Figure 6.12 Oude Markt 7021 Stadsgr
Page 131 and 132: the market. However, the market ass
Page 133 and 134: etail stores. The Van Heekplein thu
Page 135 and 136: After all actors were involved and
Page 137 and 138: government realised it needed to pr
Page 139 and 140: compared to 36 per cent in 2000. Th
Page 141 and 142: this therefore also includes the Pe
Page 143 and 144: Figure 6.19 Loeffplein Bloemenkamp
Page 145 and 146: Loeffplein and the Stoa (Figure 6.1
Page 147 and 148: problems). In addition, it appointe
Page 149 and 150: 7 Fear and fantasy in the cases 7.1
Page 151 and 152: cafés. The members of the consorti
Page 153 and 154: esidential square located outside t
Page 155 and 156: also perceive it that way; they eva
Page 157 and 158: comprised of many stores with a ‘
Page 159 and 160: actors involved in the cases in mor
Page 161 and 162: confirms the work of several author
Page 163 and 164: 8 Private-sector involvement in the
Page 165 and 166: 8.2.1 Role and objectives of the lo
Page 167 and 168: Discussions during the focus group
Page 169 and 170: and investors hardly contribute to
Page 171: the architects responsible for the
Page 175 and 176: There is also a compulsive pressure
Page 177 and 178: they argued that property owners ar
Page 179 and 180: They were all refuted until V&D and
Page 181 and 182: In addition to a longer duration, p
Page 183 and 184: In a similar vein, one informant em
Page 185 and 186: 9 Conclusions, reflections, and imp
Page 187 and 188: were laid out in the 1950s as parts
Page 189 and 190: ‘supply side’. This includes th
Page 191 and 192: Van Heekplein (i.e., Foruminvest, H
Page 193 and 194: edevelopment of the PPP squares was
Page 195 and 196: more restricted due to private-sect
Page 197 and 198: Glossary Chief Government Architect
Page 199 and 200: Appendix A Interviews and focus gro
Page 201 and 202: Table A.5 Case-study interviews on
Page 203 and 204: (1) (2) (3) City a Population b Nam
Page 205 and 206: 2. Object: changes in the design an
Page 207 and 208: Capacities: Role of investor Respon
Page 209 and 210: Table E.2 Main Dutch investors invo
Page 211 and 212: Samenvatting Veranderende openbare
Page 213 and 214: Beurstraverse. Het Van Heekplein in
Page 215 and 216: in hun eigendom, maar ook in de rui
Page 217 and 218: uimte leiden. Tenslotte kunnen de b
Page 219 and 220: References Aarts, M., ed. (1995), E
Page 221 and 222: Burgers, J. (2003), De historische
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Gemeente Enschede (1999), H.J. van
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Ibelings, H. (2004), Geprivatiseerd
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Mitchell, D. (2001), Postmodern geo
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Rishbeth, C. & N. Finney (2006), No
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Van de Wiel, J. (1996), De winkelfu
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Curriculum vitae Rianne van Melik w
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NEDERLANDSE GEOGRAFISCHE STUDIES /
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