Changing public space

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Consumers/ users Private sector Consumer behaviour Shopping behaviour Location Strategy Local government Location policy Location Policy Strategy Regional government Stakeholders 7092 National government Actors Behaviour City centre Figure 4.3 Four main groups of actors involved in city centre retail. The consumers/users group is separated to indicate that this particular group is left out of the theoretical review and empirical analysis. Source: after Van de Wiel (1996: 17, translation from Dutch by the author). is irrelevant (see for the importance of good design and the role of architects e.g., Hajer, 2001; Harvard, 2002; Oosterbaan Martinius, 2003). As discussed in Section 1.4, we focus on the supply side rather than the demand side of public space. Therefore, the consumers are set-aside in the present research in contrast to Van de Wiel’s model. Similar descriptions of the roles and objectives of different actors have appeared in previous research, for example by Fainstein (2001, on redevelopment projects in New York and London), MacLaran (2003, on projects in Minneapolis and Sioux Falls in the US; in Sydney, Australia; in Auckland, New Zealand; in Birmingham, UK; and in Dublin, Ireland), and Nappi-Choulet (2006, on regeneration projects in the Paris region). Significantly, most of the literature is based on case studies from English-speaking regions and not on the Netherlands. This is important, because urban planning processes and private-sector involvement are different in the Netherlands – and yet different again in other European countries with a divergent political-economy regime. Moreover, the literature draws examples mainly from redevelopment of built structures and often does not specifically deal with the open spaces in between (Ford, 2000). 72
4.3.1 Role and objectives of local government In most European countries, responsibility for the planning and controlling of urban development has long been vested in the municipality (Eisinger, 2000). Local authorities may also regulate the market parties who are active in this field. In the Netherlands, they play an additional role because much development takes place on publicly owned land. Public ownership may have pre-dated redevelopment; alternatively, the municipality may have acquired the property on the market or by compulsory purchase as a first step toward redevelopment. In the past, some medium-sized and large cities in the Netherlands opted to instate a leasehold system rather than sell the land. They took this course in order to prevent speculation, to make sure the community would benefit from the increase in land value, and to retain the necessary flexibility to facilitate change in the future. A leasehold system gives local authorities a dual role: that of market regulators and market parties. Needham (2005) elaborates on the two-sided role of government. He argues that local governments in the Netherlands – unlike many foreign ones – hardly use any indirect strategies. Dutch authorities rarely structure the voluntary interaction between private parties. Instead they prefer to regulate or stimulate the market, even taking the initiative themselves if the private sector does not initiate the desired action. Apparently, Dutch governments hesitate to give the market a large extent of freedom, and prefer to interfere and correct for possible market failures by means of taxes, subsidies or restraints (Needham, 2006). The involvement of local authorities in Dutch redevelopment projects goes beyond the existence of the leasehold system. Like elsewhere in market-driven societies, it follows from the public role in the provision of basic services such as housing and health care, and facilities for maintaining the public order (Eisinger, 2000; Fainstein, 2001). As described above, public space is regarded as a basic service because urban society cannot function without suitable meeting places for its citizens. Stimulating the meeting function is thus an important motive for local governments to get involved in the redevelopment of public space. However, municipalities also have marketing motives for their interest in public space, because it can support and stimulate the adjacent commercial functions or the local economy in general. City centres have been facing stiffer competition – generated externally (from other cities) and internally (from district shopping centres) – in their attempts to attract the increasingly mobile and footloose higher-income residents, tourists, investments, and businesses to the city (Short & Kim, 1999; Groth & Corijn, 2005; Gospodini, 2006). To distinguish themselves, they increasingly focus on making their public spaces spectacular, symbolic, and user-friendlier. Generally speaking, local governments have always been mindful of the power of the image conveyed by a fine public setting: “The creation of new public spaces can be a highly visible and relatively inexpensive symbol of government concern with the people’s welfare …” (Carr et al., 1992: 294). Redevelopment can also lead to higher tax revenues because property values can increase as a result of improved public space. According to Oc and Tiesdell (1999), local authorities have traditionally been responsible for managing and maintaining the public spaces of city centres. However, the local state is increasingly unable to bare the sole responsibility of the provision of public goods as a result of declining powers and financial abilities (Section 4.2.2). In the Netherlands and elsewhere, this has led to the privatisation of formerly state-owned services, such as waste disposal, the railways, and postal deliveries. The perception is that it is economically better to put the production of goods and services in the hands of the market, as this would lead to maximum efficiency 73
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Changing public space The recent re
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Changing public space
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Netherlands Geographical Studies 37
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Contents Figures 9 Tables 11 Voorwo
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7 Fear and fantasy in the cases 147
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Figures 1.1 Outline of the thesis 2
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Tables 2.1 Development of European
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Voorwoord Al reizend ervaart men he
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1 Changing role of public space in
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23 per cent of the geographical pub
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Mentzel (1993: 104):* the place whe
Page 23 and 24: home country but also evaluate publ
Page 25 and 26: 1. How have the design and manageme
Page 27 and 28: and agency as complementary forces
Page 29 and 30: of public space, it could also make
Page 31 and 32: 2 Development and typology of Dutch
Page 33 and 34: periods, the table illustrates the
Page 35 and 36: Figure 2.1 The Vismarkt (fish marke
Page 37 and 38: 1985 on behest of the communist lea
Page 39 and 40: Figure 2.2 Neude in Utrecht in 1989
Page 41 and 42: (Prak, 2002; Meyer et al., 2006). B
Page 43 and 44: ecause its situation has altered th
Page 45 and 46: connection can also be less clear-c
Page 47 and 48: can also explain why certain square
Page 49 and 50: 3 Current trends in the design and
Page 51 and 52: Figure 3.1 Sign of CCTV in Barcelon
Page 53 and 54: easy access (Lofland, 1998). This c
Page 55 and 56: how entertainment has gone through
Page 57 and 58: Figure 3.2 The Beestenmarkt in Delf
Page 59 and 60: Dynamics in production structures
Page 61 and 62: surveillance cameras, their operato
Page 63 and 64: at redeveloped derelict sites that
Page 65 and 66: 4 Private-sector involvement in the
Page 67 and 68: urban policy in the 1980s after an
Page 69 and 70: (1989) defines as the transformatio
Page 71 and 72: 3. A shift from public sector to pr
Page 73: through a blend of architectural de
Page 77 and 78: uildings and to emphasise that they
Page 79 and 80: increase in the number of rules or
Page 81 and 82: for the dispossessed, which Mitchel
Page 83 and 84: process (i.e., longer duration, mor
Page 85 and 86: 5 Research design and methodology I
Page 87 and 88: Figure 5.1 Cultural square: Museump
Page 89 and 90: (Slager, 2007). There are also hybr
Page 91 and 92: 5.2.2 Inventory of Dutch city squar
Page 93 and 94: Table 5.3 Research objects in the n
Page 95 and 96: Appendix C consists of an interview
Page 97 and 98: concepts have been specified in six
Page 99 and 100: Figure 5.7 Permanent stage on the G
Page 101 and 102: 6 Urban policy and spatial structur
Page 103 and 104: document to stimulate the diversifi
Page 105 and 106: six museums in the area, which were
Page 107 and 108: emphasises the need for well-connec
Page 109 and 110: Figure 6.2 Schouwburgplein Central
Page 111 and 112: Table 6.3 Timeline of developments
Page 113 and 114: Figure 6.4 Beurstraverse Bijenkorf
Page 115 and 116: Table 6.4 Policies and changes in p
Page 117 and 118: The Spuiboulevard was the first pro
Page 119 and 120: Table 6.5 Timeline of developments
Page 121 and 122: is unclear when the real redevelopm
Page 123 and 124: Figure 6.9 Statenplein Scheffersple
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success to a strong project leader,
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6.4.1 Policy and structure in Ensch
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Figure 6.12 Oude Markt 7021 Stadsgr
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the market. However, the market ass
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etail stores. The Van Heekplein thu
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After all actors were involved and
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government realised it needed to pr
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compared to 36 per cent in 2000. Th
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this therefore also includes the Pe
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Figure 6.19 Loeffplein Bloemenkamp
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Loeffplein and the Stoa (Figure 6.1
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problems). In addition, it appointe
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7 Fear and fantasy in the cases 7.1
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cafés. The members of the consorti
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esidential square located outside t
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also perceive it that way; they eva
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comprised of many stores with a ‘
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actors involved in the cases in mor
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confirms the work of several author
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8 Private-sector involvement in the
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8.2.1 Role and objectives of the lo
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Discussions during the focus group
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and investors hardly contribute to
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the architects responsible for the
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2) a decrease in the free access of
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There is also a compulsive pressure
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they argued that property owners ar
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They were all refuted until V&D and
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In addition to a longer duration, p
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In a similar vein, one informant em
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9 Conclusions, reflections, and imp
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were laid out in the 1950s as parts
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‘supply side’. This includes th
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Van Heekplein (i.e., Foruminvest, H
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edevelopment of the PPP squares was
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more restricted due to private-sect
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Glossary Chief Government Architect
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Appendix A Interviews and focus gro
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Table A.5 Case-study interviews on
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(1) (2) (3) City a Population b Nam
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2. Object: changes in the design an
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Capacities: Role of investor Respon
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Table E.2 Main Dutch investors invo
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Samenvatting Veranderende openbare
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Beurstraverse. Het Van Heekplein in
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in hun eigendom, maar ook in de rui
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uimte leiden. Tenslotte kunnen de b
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References Aarts, M., ed. (1995), E
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Burgers, J. (2003), De historische
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Gemeente Enschede (1999), H.J. van
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Ibelings, H. (2004), Geprivatiseerd
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Mitchell, D. (2001), Postmodern geo
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Rishbeth, C. & N. Finney (2006), No
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Van de Wiel, J. (1996), De winkelfu
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Curriculum vitae Rianne van Melik w
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NEDERLANDSE GEOGRAFISCHE STUDIES /
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