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Interactionsof Ethnocide and GenocideWhile the definitions of genocide and ethnocidemay be relatively distinct, in practice they oftenconfusingly interact. It is helpful to distinguish the mainforms that this interaction might take.a) Ethnocide might be a more viable alternative togenocide. If the objective of policy is to remove apeople whose continued traditional lifestyle is consideredto be an obstacle to some larger aim, such as adevelopment project, a number of solutions are possible(e. g. , ethnocide, genocide, or expulsion). Due toinsufficient analyses of cases, it is not yet possible toclearly establish which conditions are necessary for thepursuit of these different options. One factor whichmight be influential in the choice of ethnocide ratherthan genocide is the extent to which internationalspotlights are focused upon the situation. Internationalpressure does not necessarily result in a change ofpolicy, yet it may be sufficient in some cases toencourage a change from overt genocidal policies tomore covert ethnocidal ones under the protective guiseof "assimilation" or "reservations. "A second possible factor is that, once the "obstacle"has been removed through physical destruction,ethnocidal policies might be continued against thesurvivors for whom no "use" can be found to ensuretheir continued powerlessness and dissolution. This mayhave been the case in Queensland, Australia, duringthe late nineteenth century where isolated reserves wereestablished for the dispirited and abused Aborigineswho had survived the violent onslaught of frontierexpansion. From these survivors, whose traditionallifestyles and communities had been destroyed, thosewho were not integrated into the dominant whiteeconomy were randomly and forcibly transferred tothe reserves where it was assumed they would naturallydie out as a race. ~ The example highlights a thirdpossible factor — the extent to which the population ofan unwanted culture can be incorporated, albeit oftenforcibly, into the dominant economy.b) Ethnocide might act as a prelude to genocide.Certainly genocidal Nazi policies were augmented atthe Wannsee Conference in 1942. Prior to this, Jews,Gypsies, and other targeted groups were subjected toethnocidal practices. During Kristallnacht, synagogueswere set ablaze the length of Germany. Families andcommunities were tom apart and deprived of theirmeans of livelihood as they were redistributed throughoutEurope or confined in isolated ghettoes. ~ In earlycolonial Australia, assimilationist policies towards theAborigines were initially encouraged, yet their continuedfailure fueled impatience and encouraged frontiers-men to use violence as a means to end the Aborigineobstacle.c) Ethnocide and genocide might be pursued simultaneously.This is perhaps the most common form ofinteraction for several reasons. First, little discriminationmay be made in the means of removing the"obstacle" culture and both are seen as effective andcomplementary measures. In some cases, certainsegments of a population might be spared from genocideif they are thought to be useful and are subject toethnocidal policies. For example, far greater numbersof women and young girls found on the Ache reservationsin Paraguay have been attributed to their use assexual chattels for camp guards. ~ Second, ethnocidalpolicies commonly result in genocide — they are a meansof achieving the physical destruction of a people. Thedestruction of the ecosystem on which a society dependsoften leads to starvation, as do failed attempts to forceeconomic reorganization upon a people with insufficientresources. People removed to reservations face deathfrom starvation, lack of sanitation or medical support,and violence; having survived total disruption of theirlives and grief from physical separation from lovedones, they also commonly lose the will to live and seedeath as a welcome release. ~EthnogenesisIn spite of the widespread enactment of ethnocidethroughout the globe, a number of peoples facingcultural destruction have reasserted their distinctidentities and successfully struggled against thepolicieswhich oppress them. This counter resurgence is awidespread phenomenon which has gained momentumfrom international voluntary and statutory agencies,such as the International Work Group on IndigenousAffairs and Cultural Survival; from the church in anumber of cases such as the Jesuit church in Paraguay~";and from the establishment of pan-identitiesto fight a common struggle, such as the Pan-AndeanIndians." Significantly, younger people who havedirectly experienced assimilationist policies are rejectingthe values and lifestyles of the dominant cultures, andare fighting for a future in the traditional culture oftheir people." ~Given the extent to which ethnogenesis occurs,it seems sensible to conclude that, while ethnocidalpolicies are relatively easy to pursue, it is less easy forthem to succeed. The apparent optimism that thissuggests has a considerable negative side; ethnocideis a less successful means than genocide to achieve theobjective of removing a distinct cultural identity.Ethnocide 5