ate and beleaguered <strong>in</strong>stitutions that generally attemptedto ameliorate the suffer<strong>in</strong>g of the victims but were the<strong>in</strong>evitable, if unwill<strong>in</strong>g, pawns of the oppressors. Inthe end, the vast majority of Europe's Jews perished,though not without resistance. The story of Jewishresistance is one of hope and unbelievable courageaga<strong>in</strong>st overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g odds. The Jews were no matchfor the state power and well-oiled military mach<strong>in</strong>e ofthe Nazis. Resistance, <strong>in</strong> a pure military sense, wasdoomed to failure.Many Jews died <strong>in</strong> the ghettos, but not quicklyenough. The Nazis felt more radical solutions wereneeded. Before 1941, a network of concentration campswas established <strong>in</strong> areas occupied by the Nazis. Thesecamps, like Dachau, Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, andSachsenhausen, were horrific places that held opponentsof the regime and served as slave labor depots. Nevertheless,unlike the annihilation camps, the concentrationcamps were not necessarily part of the systematicprogram of annihilation. Many thousands died there,but many others managed to work and survive.In contrast, the annihilation camps were built <strong>in</strong>Poland near the largest concentrations of Jews <strong>in</strong>Europe and the ghettos, <strong>in</strong> close proximity to railroadsand near populations that might be considered <strong>in</strong>differentto the fate of the Jews. The first to be put <strong>in</strong>tooperation was Chelmno or Kulmhof <strong>in</strong> December 1941.It was followed by Belzec <strong>in</strong> March 1942, Sobibor <strong>in</strong>May 1942, Trebl<strong>in</strong>ka <strong>in</strong> July 1942, and Maidanek <strong>in</strong>August 1942. Fewer than 100 Jews survived the campsat Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor, and Trebl<strong>in</strong>ka. More than1. 5 million Jews and some 50, 000 Gypsies weremurdered <strong>in</strong> those places. 'The methods of annihilation varied. At first,mobile gas vans were used to asphyxiate the victims.Technical people at Reich Security Ma<strong>in</strong> Officeheadquarters designed a tightly closed truck with thecab sealed off from the freight section. They convertedSaurer truck chassis <strong>in</strong>to vans with closed compartmentsthat could hold about eighty people. The carbonmonoxide exhaust was diverted <strong>in</strong>to the compartment.Chelmno, about forty miles northeast of Lodz, experimentedwith them first on 8 December 1941. In thespr<strong>in</strong>g, the same method was used at Belzec, Sobibor,and Trebl<strong>in</strong>ka. Here, too, diesel eng<strong>in</strong>es were used but<strong>in</strong> fixed <strong>in</strong>stallations. The same was <strong>in</strong>itially true ofthe largest kill<strong>in</strong>g center, Auschwitz <strong>in</strong> Eastern UpperSilesia, where between 1 1/2 and 2 1/2 million peopledied. At Auschwitz, as later <strong>in</strong> Maidanek near Lubl<strong>in</strong>,a crystall<strong>in</strong>e form of hydrogen cyanide that turnedgaseous when exposed to the air was used for thekill<strong>in</strong>g. This chemical, marketed as a dis<strong>in</strong>fectant andmanufactured by a Frankfurt firm called Degesch, wentby the trade name Zyklon B. The first experiments withZyklon B were conducted on 3 September 1941 atAuschwitz on some six hundred Russian POWs andanother 250 sick prisoners from the camp hospital.Systematic operations began <strong>in</strong> January 1942. Transportsfrom all over Europe brought Jews to Auschwitz.Soon, gas chambers disguised as shower rooms were<strong>in</strong>stalled as were cremataria, with forty-six ovens <strong>in</strong>all. They had a capacity to burn from 12, 000 to 20, 000bodies a day. Tens of thousands of other victims wereburned <strong>in</strong> open air pits.It is impossible to know precisely how many Jewsdied dur<strong>in</strong>g the Holocaust. Somewhere between 5. 1and 5. 9 million Jews perished — nearly two-thirds ofEuropean Jewry and one-third of the Jews <strong>in</strong> the worldlost their lives. In addition to this human tragedy thatgrips our sensibilities and shocks our sense of values,there is also the cultural, <strong>in</strong>tellectual, and religioustragedy of the destruction of European Jewry, a world,a way of life, that can never be replaced. In the end,millions participated <strong>in</strong> and assented to this policy:those who knew it was happen<strong>in</strong>g but let it cont<strong>in</strong>ue,as well as those who contributed to it more directly.Even the Allies did not make rescue of the Jews apriority. They all carry a share of the responsibilityfor this genocidal event.The Challenge We Face TodayWe are at a crucial turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t with respect tothe level of sensitivity and awareness of the importanceof the Holocaust. There may have been a time not verylong ago when one could assume a degree of commonunderstand<strong>in</strong>g of the Holocaust and common feel<strong>in</strong>gfor its victims, but no such consensus exists today. Theproblem is that the further events fade <strong>in</strong>to the past,the more the construction of convenient truth growsand is perfected. <strong>Time</strong> is an enemy of the Holocaust.More and more shrill voices <strong>in</strong>sist it never happened.Worse yet may be those who want to relativize theHolocaust or to universalize and trivialize it by theoriz-<strong>in</strong>g that Hitler had good reason to fear the Jews or thatNazi atrocities were not unusual and must be seen <strong>in</strong>the light of Soviet atrocities and the political standardsof the period. This tendency to deny or to m<strong>in</strong>imizethe veracity and uniqueness of the Holocaust is likelyto <strong>in</strong>crease with German unification. With the passageof time, the past loses its truth unless its most po<strong>in</strong>tedlessons are cont<strong>in</strong>ually reiterated and underscored. Thatis the challenge we face today.NQTES1. See Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989); GeorgeKren and Leon Rappaport, The Holocaust and the26 GENOCIDE
Crisis of Human Behavior (New York: Holmes & Meir,1980); and Richard Rubenste<strong>in</strong>, The Cunn<strong>in</strong>g ofHistory: The Holocaust and the American Future (NewYork: Harper & Row, 1975).2. Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Aga<strong>in</strong>st the Jews,1933-1945 (New York: Holt, R<strong>in</strong>ehart and W<strong>in</strong>ston,1975).3. Karl Schleunes, The Twisted Road to Auschwitz(Urbana: University of Ill<strong>in</strong>ois Press, 1971).4. See Rubenste<strong>in</strong>, 22-35.6. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the EuropeanJews, 3 vols. rev. ed. (New York: Holmes & Meier,1985); Rubenste<strong>in</strong>; Robert Jay Lifton, 7he Nazi Doctors(New York: Basic Books, 1986); Bauman; and BerelLang, Act and Idea <strong>in</strong> the Nazi <strong>Genocide</strong> (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1990).7. Gerald Flem<strong>in</strong>g, Hitler and the F<strong>in</strong>al Solution(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).8. Yitzhak Arad, Belzec, Sobibor, Trebl<strong>in</strong>ka: TheOperation Re<strong>in</strong>hard Death Camps (Bloom<strong>in</strong>gton:Indiana University Press, 1987).5. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann <strong>in</strong> Jerusalem: A Reporton the Banality of Evil (New York: The Vik<strong>in</strong>g Press,1965).Chapter 2: AnnotatedBibliographyGENERAL WORKS+2. 1 +Braham, Randolph L. The Politics of <strong>Genocide</strong>. 2 vols.New York: Columbia University Press, 1980. LC 80-11096. ISBN 0-231-05208-1 (vol. 1); 0-231-04388-0(vol. 2).The Hungarian Jewish community rema<strong>in</strong>edrelatively untouched until the Spr<strong>in</strong>g of 1944 when theNazis began deportations to Auschwitz; Adolf Eichmannplayed a pivotal role <strong>in</strong> the process. Brahamshows that many Hungarians assisted the Nazis. Thisis the def<strong>in</strong>itive study of the Holocaust <strong>in</strong> Hungary.+ 2. 2 ~Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Aga<strong>in</strong>st the Jews, 1933-1945. New York: Holt, R<strong>in</strong>ehart and W<strong>in</strong>ston, 1975.LC 74-15470. ISBN 0-03-013661-0.In what is probably the most widely read workon the Holocaust, Dawidowicz argues that World WarII was a two-fold war. The Nazis had conventionalobjectives such as territory, power, and wealth. Theyalso unleashed a "war aga<strong>in</strong>st the Jews" motivated byideology and anti-Semitism. Hitler <strong>in</strong>tended the genocideand World War II provided an effective vehicleto accomplish it. A useful appendix <strong>in</strong>dicates the fateof the Jews, country by country.3Flem<strong>in</strong>g, Gerald. Hitler and the F<strong>in</strong>al Solution.Berkeley: Universityof California Press, 1982. LC 83-24352. ISBN 0-520-05103-3.Flem<strong>in</strong>g bases his position on material fromBritish, American, and Soviet archives. He makes astrong case for the thesis that Hitler was <strong>in</strong>strumental<strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g and implement<strong>in</strong>g the "F<strong>in</strong>al Solution. " Herefutes revisionists like David Irv<strong>in</strong>g who argues forHitler's limited knowledge of and participation <strong>in</strong> thegenocide.*2. 4*Gilbert, Mart<strong>in</strong>. The Holocaust: A History of the Jewsof Europe dur<strong>in</strong>g the Second World War. New York:Holt, R<strong>in</strong>ehart and W<strong>in</strong>ston, 1986. LC 85-5523. ISBN0-03-062416-9.A dist<strong>in</strong>guishedBritishhistorian, us<strong>in</strong>gdocumentsand survivor accounts, describes the Holocaust fromthe perspective of the victims. He provides detailedaccounts of the suffer<strong>in</strong>g as well as the valor of theJews.+25Heller, Celia Stopnicka. On the Edge of Destruction.New York: Schocken, 1980. LC 76-22646. ISBN 0-231-03819-4.In a scholarly sociological analysis of the social,political, and economic situation of Polish Jews betweenthe world wars, Heller develops the context to expla<strong>in</strong>why Polish Jews fared so badly dur<strong>in</strong>g the Holocaust.Her discussion of Polish anti-Semitism is particularly<strong>in</strong>formative.Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews.3 vols. Rev. ed. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985.LC 83-18369. ISBN 0-8419-0832-X (set). Orig<strong>in</strong>allypublished <strong>in</strong> 1961.The Holocaust 27
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ella story. We could have eaten all
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Chapter 5THE ARMENIANGENOCIDE:REVIS
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The genocide was the culmination of
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Abdications and Retributions Turkey
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and London: University Press of New
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and sometimes irrational. " (p. 7)
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Morgenthau, Henry . . . . . '. . .
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TITLE INDEXThe Abandonment of the J
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"Epilogue: The Nuclear Arms Raceand
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The Industrialization of Soviet Rus
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Psychiatric Aspects of the Preventi
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When Memory ComesWhile Six Million