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social structures and cultural destruction as displacedPapuans become urban fringe-dwellers, and are exposedto attempts to modernize them. The "Koteka operation"in the early 1970s against the Dani is singled out asthe "most systematic of these attempts. " A major factorin the violence of administering transmigration andmodernizing programs is that it lies in the hands of themilitary. Papuans are portrayed as both primitive anda potential threat to Indonesian territorial defenseagainst Papua New Guinea, warranting militaryintervention. Indonesian education omits all referenceto Papuans and their culture. A further consequenceof transmigration has been the upheaval of the ecologicalbalance necessary for Papuan shifting horticulture,resulting in famine.~ 1. 14 ~Burger, Julian. ReportPom the Frontier. London andCambridge, MA: Zed Books, Ltd. and CulturalSurvival Inc. , 1987. ISBN 0-86232-391-6 (Zed).In this readily accessible book, Burger exploresthe present-day situation of indigenous people underthreat from development projects, and their strugglesfor physical and cultural survival. The rapid rate ofdevelopment is based upon two myths — that the landis wild and empty, and that it promises under-usedresources that will solve state economic and politicalproblems. The author includes a large number of casesspread throughout the world. Ethnocide is identifiedas the "one overwhelming and universal menace to"indigenouspeoples, while "assimilation into industrialsociety has brought few benefits and many hardships"as they become "part of the growing mass of landlessand underemployed poor. " (p. 31) One chapter isdedicated to a discussion of governmental and internationalaction and concludes that since governments areusually involved in the violation ofhuman rights, "theypay little heed to the international instruments to whichthey are signatories. There is no guarantee, therefore,that the declaration of principles or any subsequentconvention concerning the rights of indigenous peopleswill have any meaningful impact. .. " (p. 269).~ 1. 15 ~The Chittagong Hill Tracts. Indigenous Peoples andDevelopment Series, no. 2. London: The Anti-SlaverySociety, 1984. ISBN 0-900918-19-5.In the Chittagong Hill Tracts in eastern Bangladesh,a war is being waged between the Shanti BahiniPeace Force of the indigenous hill people and Bangladeshitroops sent to the area by Dhaka to enforce statedevelopment plans. These plans to economicallyreorganize the Tracts into permanent, settled, andindividually owned farms, and to construct the KaptaiDam using large sums of foreign aid have attracted tensof thousands of Bengalis into the area. The consequencehas been the destruction of tribal traditional shiftingcultivation, dispossession of tribal lands and villages,economic exploitation, starvation, debt, violence, andthe upheaval of traditional socio-political communityorganization. The tribal view of the onslaught is "atbest, 'exploitation' but more commonly. .. ethnocideverging on genocide" (p. 7), as recurrent massacres,arrests, and tortures coincide with Muslim troopviolence aimed specifically at the tribal Buddhistreligion.+ 1. 16 +Colchester, Marcus, ed. An End to Laughter. London:Survival International, 1985. ISSN 0308-2857.The 1985 annual report from Survival Internationalpresents articles concerning the destruction wroughtupon tribal peoples by projects for economic developmentunder the ambit of nation-state building in India,Namibia, Nicaragua, and Latin America. The valueof this collection lies in its demonstration that the formof destruction is specific to each case and is determinedby a greater number of factors than are immediatelyapparent. The removal of people from their traditionallands appears as a common cause of cultural destruction— a threat faced by over two million people incentral India due to the construction of hydroelectricdams in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Alsoincluded is a brief report on the ethnocidal policies ofthe Pinochet regime in Chile as experienced by theMapuche Indians, and a collection of correspondencebetween Survival International and the World Bankwhich successfully halted a project that threatened thecultural survival of 6, 700 Indians in West CentralAmazona in Brazil.+ 1. 17 +Colletta, Nat J. "Folk Culture and Development:Cultural Genocide or Cultural Revitalization?" Conver-gence 10:2 (1977): 12-19.the orthodox perspective onColletta challengesdevelopment which views traditional cultures asantipathetic to economic advancement. A wide varietyof examples are used to demonstrate that, contrary toconventional approaches, indigenous cultural forms canbe adapted to achieve change. Development and modernstate formation, it is argued, do not necessitate thedestruction of existing cultures.~ 1. 18 ~Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror, A Reassessment.London, Sydney, Auckland, and Johannesburg:Hutchinson, 1990. ISBN 0-09-174293-5.In Chapter 10 of this work, a new edition of his1968 publication, Conquest concentrates specifically10 GENOCIDE