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3 varied and often used to achieve multiple policy goals. Alongside measures to prevent the rising challenge of childhood obesity, discussed later, school feeding programmes have been used to foster lifelong nutrition and well-being and to compensate for household poverty. Finland was the first country to serve free school meals to all, viewing them as an investment in learning. The goals of the Finnish system are not only to improve nutrition but also to teach long-lasting eating habits and promote awareness of the importance of food choices (Tikkanen and Urho, 2009). In Japan, school meals and dieticians are used to inculcate healthy nutrition practices and combat lifestyle-related ailments such as eating disorders and obesity (Tanaka and Miyoshi, 2012). In the United States, free or reducedprice school meals are provided to lower income students using income eligibility criteria. In the 2012/13 school year, the National School Lunch Program provided daily meals to nearly 31 million children in nearly 100,000 schools, with over 21 million receiving free or reduced-price lunches (Food Research and Action Center, 2015). Analysis of the programme’s impact found shorterterm health effects but a major positive impact on adult educational attainment (Hinrichs, 2010). School-based deworming campaigns could address some of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases: infection with soil-transmitted helminths and schistosomiasis. These diseases, which particularly affect children in sub-Saharan Africa, can be easily treated with safe, low cost drugs. Free provision through schools could reach a large share of children, with benefits extending to out-ofschool children through reduced risk of transmission. This could also be used as part of the response to World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations of mass treatment once a year in regions with infection prevalence above 20%, and twice a year in regions with prevalence above 50% (Ahuja et al., 2015). Curricular interventions School-based interventions can also provide information on health and improve knowledge and behaviour in the long term. The effectiveness of such interventions depends on the quality and relevance of the information. Sexual and reproductive health education needs to acknowledge that some students are sexually active and rely on a risk reduction strategy. Many sub-Saharan African countries have introduced HIV education in their curricula, but promote abstinence until marriage instead of providing information on how to reduce the risk of HIV transmission during sex. In Kenya, an experiment showed that the official curriculum made no difference to the sexual behaviour of adolescent girls. Yet information on the fact that HIV prevalence was much higher among adult men than among boys of their age led girls to switch from unprotected sex with older partners to condom-protected sex with partners of their age (Dupas, 2011a). Childhood obesity is a rising concern. While its prevalence is much more common in higher income countries (Figure 3.8), it is also a rapidly increasing challenge in lower income ones (Bhurosy and Jeewon, 2014; Popkin et al., 2012). A systematic review of 24 studies pertaining to students aged 5 to 18 in countries of North America and Western Europe as well as Brazil, China and New Zealand found that obesity prevention – mostly using a mix of classroom activities, provision of fruit and vegetables in school meals, and parental involvement – could reduce students’ body mass index and increase their consumption of fruit and vegetables. A larger impact was found for interventions that lasted at least one year and were integrated into the regular curriculum and school activities (Silveira et al., 2011). Yet, the potential of school-based prevention, especially through early childhood interventions, has not been fully exploited (World Obesity Foundation, 2014). A systematic review of 26 early childhood studies revealed a paucity of properly designed and evaluated interventions, especially in low and middle income countries (Mikkelsen et al., 2014). Water, sanitation and hygiene in schools In the past 40 years, water, sanitation and hygiene programmes have evolved from purely infrastructural interventions, such as building latrines and handwashing facilities, towards more comprehensive interventions incorporating elements of hygiene education, awareness and promotion. Hygiene promotion in schools became increasingly common after 2000, based on the belief that children can be influenced to not only improve their health, but also be agents of change in their communities (UNICEF, 2006). School-based interventions have a demonstrated impact on health, education, economic and gender-equity outcomes. For instance, a comprehensive, integrated programme to improve school water, sanitation and hygiene in Kenya resulted in a nearly 50% reduction in girls’ absence (Freeman et al., 2012), and was especially important for schools that had had poor water 2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 79
3 FIGURE 3.8: While being underweight is more common in lower income countries, being overweight is more prevalent in many upper middle and high income countries Percentage of overweight and underweight children under age 5, selected countries 45 Overweight and underweight children under age 5 (%) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 Overweight Underweight 0 Eritrea Sudan Bangladesh Pakistan Nepal Papua N. Guinea Sri Lanka Ethiopia Cambodia D. R. Congo Indonesia Philippines Nigeria Tajikistan Viet Nam Haiti Kenya Vanuatu Thailand Iraq Egypt Azerbaijan Algeria Krygyzstan Mexico Rep. Moldova Tonga Turkey Serbia Mongolia Bosnia/Herzeg. Montenegro Chile United States Note: Data are for the most recent year available between 2010 and 2015. Source: UNICEF (2016). availability (Garn et al., 2013). But policy-makers need to show more leadership. In a 2014 survey of 94 countries, just over one-fifth of water, sanitation and hygiene measures in national plans had been fully implemented, funded and regularly reviewed; just over one-third of countries included specific targets to reach universal access to water and sanitation in schools, and less than 30% of countries aspired to universal coverage for hygiene promotion in schools in the next decade (WHO and UN Water, 2014). Similarly, leadership is needed to promote schoolbased interventions and facilities for better menstrual hygiene management. A recent systematic review of three studies, conducted in urban schools in Egypt, India and Saudi Arabia, showed that providing multiple hour sessions led to stronger knowledge of menstrual hygiene and better practices (such as using, changing, washing and drying sanitary pads) (Sumpter and Torondel, 2013). In Uttar Pradesh, India, an intervention begun in 2011 targeted men and boys to support menstrual hygiene through focus group discussions, games, media tools and regular meetings. Better management can be complemented by needed infrastructure. As the 2015 GMR confirmed, access to better facilities for girls is likely to have positive effects on their dignity and the quality of their schooling experience (UNESCO, 2015). EDUCATION OPENS OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN A wealth of studies and global and national reports have documented the variety of ways in which individuals and societies benefit from providing better education to women and girls (UNESCO, 2014), although content and processes determine how they derive the benefits. The link between education and earning prospects is well documented. Education helps widen women’s employment opportunities beyond low skill work (see Chapter 2: Prosperity). The socio-economic benefits of educating women, both for individual and family outcomes and for national and global economic growth, have long been used to advocate for more investment in girls’ education (Miranda, 2015; Murphy et al., 2009; Wils 80 CHAPTER 3 | PEOPLE: INCLUSIVE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
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GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT
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This Report is an independent publi
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Foreword The 2016 Global Education
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Acknowledgements This report would
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The Global Education Monitoring Rep
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CHAPTER 6 • Partnerships: enablin
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List of figures, tables, and text b
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Figure 17.2: Most primary schools d
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HIGHLIGHTS Education for people and
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PLACE Urbanization puts strain on e
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Monitoring SDG 4 TARGET 4.1: Primar
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A young boy takes part in a refores
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I INTRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS Transform
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I of environmental degradation and
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I BOX 0.2 THE SDGS WERE CREATED THR
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I (Box 0.4). These principles state
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I TABLE 0.1: How education is typic
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I The Incheon Declaration affirmed
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I The chapter documents the links b
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Here students in Indonesia learn ab
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1 KEY MESSAGES Living sustainably r
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1 other heat-trapping gases into th
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1 so that even countries with natur
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1 in responding to environmental ch
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1 petition, given more money or tak
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Page 61 and 62: 2 KEY MESSAGES Education has a key
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Page 67 and 68: 2 considerations and risk managemen
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Page 73 and 74: 2 FIGURE 2.1: Employment is being p
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Page 87 and 88: Selina Akter, second year midwifery
Page 89 and 90: 3 KEY MESSAGES Progress in health,
Page 91 and 92: 3 health, water, sanitation, energy
Page 93 and 94: 3 FIGURE 3.2: Women do more unpaid
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Page 99 and 100: 3 FIGURE 3.7: Education marginaliza
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Page 107 and 108: 3 2007, to 44 months. By 2007, birt
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Page 115 and 116: 3 Brazil, Indonesia, Rwanda and Sou
Page 117 and 118: Children look through a destroyed c
Page 119 and 120: 4 KEY MESSAGES Getting children int
Page 121 and 122: 4 EDUCATION MATTERS IN INCREASING P
Page 123 and 124: 4 One direct form of political part
Page 125 and 126: 4 tertiary education formed the cor
Page 127 and 128: 4 “ 35% of out-of-school children
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Page 133 and 134: 4 Lack of knowledge and education s
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5 130 CHAPTER 5 | PLACE: INCLUSIVE
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CHAPTER 6 Partnerships: enabling co
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6 Finance..........................
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6 strategic aid, non-traditional pa
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6 Even with substantial increases i
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6 FIGURE 6.4: Inequities in aid to
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6 instructive examples of national
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6 vertical integration is often con
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6 projects had satisfactory outcome
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6 funds; mobilized civil society an
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CHAPTER 7 Projections: forecasting
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7 Projecting global educational att
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7 TABLE 7.2: Projected attainment r
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7 TABLE 7.3: Percentage of countrie
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7 FIGURE 7.4: Universal upper secon
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CHAPTER 8 Education and sustainable
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8 Policy recommendations...........
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8 Evidence gathered for this report
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8 PROSPERITY In order to reduce pov
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8 PARTNERSHIPS In order to ensure a
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CHAPTER 9 The challenges of monitor
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9 Reaching consensus on the post-20
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9 skills in information and communi
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9 The Incheon Declaration requested
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9 offer policy-makers sufficient in
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10 CHAPTER 10 Sustainable Developme
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10 FIGURE 10.1: More than 4 in 10 c
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10 TABLE 10.2: Countries with the l
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10 TABLE 10.3: Completion rates by
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10 FIGURE 10.6: In almost one-quart
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10 SYSTEMS LEARNERS SCHOOL AND CLAS
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10 PROCESSES: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
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10 and classroom climate to policy-
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10 FIGURE 10.9: In Latin America, a
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10 BOX 10.3 A new module on learnin
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10 assessment between 2007 and 2013
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10 The second issue is that resourc
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10 was administered For global moni
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11 “ In 2014, 44% of children wer
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11 ratio was 44%, while the percent
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11 Because of the range and diversi
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11 30 country reports in 3 areas, n
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11 BOX 11.1 Defining positive and s
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11 At the start of the process to d
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11 FIGURE 11.5: About three-quarter
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12 A typology of TVET recognizes th
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12 are operated by the General Depa
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12 Within its Systems Approach for
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12 Administrative sources provide e
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12 FIGURE 12.6: There are vast diff
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12 But data in this area are still
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12 University rankings Ever since f
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12 for participation is job related
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12 while in Latvia it declined unti
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12 Since the 1990s, Mozambique has
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13 in the social and political life
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13 by a large task. The four themes
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13 found that workers who scored be
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13 A Standard & Poor’s module wit
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13 CONCLUSION This chapter has revi
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14 INEQUALITY MEASURES Measuring in
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14 index equal to 0.86, and at the
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14 The parity index must be interpr
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14 BOX 14.2 The Inter-Agency Group
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14 for at least one of five reasons
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14 behaviour, play, development of
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14 trained in the bilingual curricu
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14 MIGRATION AND FORCED DISPLACEMEN
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14 There are important, sometimes i
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15 Literacy is a basic cognitive sk
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15 BOX 15.1 Measuring participation
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15 FIGURE 15.3: In many countries,
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15 The assessment would need to hav
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15 may reduce the assessment’s va
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16 examines several initiatives tha
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16 COMPREHENSIVE SEXUALITY EDUCATIO
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16 ‘global thinking’, and half
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16 “ Close to 50% of secondary sc
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16 rights training in pre-service t
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16 community, including activities
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16 PISA included questions designed
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16 global population issues, which
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16 ENDNOTES 1. The third phase, 201
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17 “ In the least developed count
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17 entering and moving through the
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17 FIGURE 17.3: Electricity access
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17 it is the more common and often
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17 Violence and attacks against civ
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18 funds a programme managed by the
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18 Around 22,500 scholarships were
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18 About 70% of aid to higher educa
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19 FIGURE 19.1: The pupil/teacher r
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19 The coverage of both indicators
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19 educators were rarely experts in
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19 The survey also asked lower seco
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19 BOX 19.3 Upgrading ‘parents’
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19 As information on occupations is
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20 CHAPTER 20 20 Finance (selected
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20 Faced with similar challenges, t
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20 TABLE 20.1: Selected education f
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20 suggests the lower limit of the
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20 FIGURE 20.5: Information on even
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20 new module on equity and inclusi
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20 “ There is a 42% financing gap
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20 countries is that estimates excl
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20 middle income countries suggests
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21 CHAPTER 21 Education systems (se
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21 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR MONITORING
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21 While SABER has extended the evi
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21 LOOKING AHEAD In essence, polici
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22 CHAPTER 22 Education in the othe
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22 governments. It measures the num
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22 b. Under-5 mortality rate (death
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22 LIFELONG LEARNING AS A FACTOR CO
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23 CHAPTER 23 Priorities for monito
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23 facilitate well-informed and mea
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23 government and non-government sc
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23 not the main concern. Countries
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23 In light of the expanded scope o
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CHAPTER 24 Epilogue 385
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24 “ When the High-Level Politica
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24 ‘robust, voluntary, effective,
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Annex Statistical Tables Introducti
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5 Statistical tables 1 INTRODUCTION
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5 UIS encourages countries to make
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5 SDG 4 targets and related indicat
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5 Switzerland, The former Yugoslav
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TABLE 1 Background demographic stat
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TABLE 1 Part 1 (Continued) DEMOGRAP
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Backgr
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 1 Part 2
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 2 SDG 4,
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 4 (Conti
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 SDG 4
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 10 (Cont
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 13 Part
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STATISTICAL TABLES 1 TABLE 14 Domes
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477
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5 Aid tables INTRODUCTION 1 The dat
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TABLE 1 Bilateral and multilateral
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DIRECT AID TO POST-SECONDARY EDUCAT
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DIRECT AID TO SECONDARY EDUCATION D
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TABLE 4 ODA recipients (Continued)
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Glossary Adjusted net enrolment rat
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Net attendance rate (NAR). Number o
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Abbreviations AAPS AES AHELO AIDS A
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ILO IMF INES ISCED ISSA LAMP LEARNi
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Index This index covers the Introdu
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home learning environment 215 ICT f
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HIV education 292 NGOs 211 out-of-s
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see also traditional knowledge Cura
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education Education 2030 Framework
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Fiji TVET enrolment 223 violence in
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ole of education 61, 78, 88, 165 gr
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educational attainment 75, 76, 105
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working poverty 57, 61 years of edu
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M Macao, China environmental educat
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perseverance 249 tertiary education
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primary education 314 secondary edu
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tertiary education 228, 229, 230, 2
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women in politics 99 years of educa
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small island developing States stud
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perseverance 249 special educationa
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within country disparity 186, 231 w
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attitudes to business 253 benefits
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Introduction Carson, R. 1962. Silen
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Das, P. K. 2010. Climate Change and
Page 565 and 566:
Reyhner, J. and Eder, J. 2015. Amer
Page 567 and 568:
Aghion, P., Veugelers, R. and Serre
Page 569 and 570:
Hanushek, E. A., Schwerdt, G., Wied
Page 571 and 572:
Pritchett, L. 2006. Does learning t
Page 573 and 574:
Bhurosy, T. and Jeewon, R. 2014. Ov
Page 575 and 576:
Gunewardena, D. 2015. Why aren’t
Page 577 and 578:
McBride, D. E. and Parry, J. A. 201
Page 579 and 580:
United Cities and Local Governments
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Campbell, D. E. 2008. Voice in the
Page 583 and 584:
Mendenhall, M. and Chopra, N. 2016.
Page 585 and 586:
Allen, H. 2013. Africa’s First Fu
Page 587 and 588:
Hanson, D. 2013. Assessing the Harl
Page 589 and 590:
Sirin, S. R. and Rogers-Sirin, L. 2
Page 591 and 592:
Fehling, M., Nelson, B. D. and Venk
Page 593 and 594:
Prichard, W. 2010. Taxation and Sta
Page 595 and 596:
Lager, A. C. J. and Torssander, J.
Page 597 and 598:
Bennell, P. and Akyeampong, K. 2007
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Crouch, L. 2015. Stumbling at the f
Page 601 and 602:
Facione, P. A. 1990. Critical Think
Page 603 and 604:
Hardin, B. J., Vardell, R. and de C
Page 605 and 606:
Inter-Agency Working Group on TVET
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Marfo, K. 2011. Envisioning an Afri
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___. 2009b. INES Network for the Co
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Pew Research Center. 2015. Internet
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South Africa Government. 2013. Regu
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UNDP. 2004. Human Development Repor
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UNICEF and WHO. 2015. Progress on S
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Wortham, S. C. 2013. Common Charact
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