people and planet

12
Within its Systems Approach for Better Education Results
(SABER) programme, the World Bank has developed a
tool to assess national policies for skills development
(World Bank, 2013c). One dimension of system quality is
whether there are relevant and reliable standards codified
in a national qualification framework, which helps in
recognizing, certifying and accrediting skills.
standards. But by 2011, less than 10% of all graduates had
received certificates. The government has recognized
the national vocational qualification certificate for
recruitment to specific grades in the public service
but the certificate has not yet gained the same level
of recognition among private employers (World Bank,
2014c).
At least 140 countries have implemented a national
qualification framework (Keevy and Chakroun, 2015).
The frameworks vary in effectiveness and do not ensure
education quality in and of themselves (Blackmur,
2015). But they can help learners, training providers
and employers focus on outcomes, rather than on the
precise way qualifications were acquired (Tuck, 2007;
Veal, 2009).
Simple frameworks classify formal learning programmes
and associated qualifications and certificates. More
advanced frameworks facilitate stakeholder interactions,
support wider quality assurance, recognize learning
gained outside formal education and training, and
make national qualification systems more transparent
to the international community (Coles et al., 2014).
In fact, regional groupings, such as Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Caribbean Community
(CARICOM), the Commonwealth, the European Union,
the Pacific Community and the Southern African
Development Community, have helped coordinate
recognition of national qualifications in regional
frameworks (ETF, 2012; UIL et al., 2016).
Among 18 countries analysed over 2012–2014 with
the SABER tool, there was quick progress towards
establishing national qualification frameworks. In
Malaysia, the 2006 National Skills Development Act
and 2007 Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act helped
establish such a framework. Coverage of occupations
under the National Occupational Skills Standards tripled
over the 2000s, and there was greater certification of
skills testing. All publicly funded programmes had to be
accredited, which strengthened coordination among
training providers (World Bank, 2013a).
Overall, two of three countries demonstrated
considerable room for improvement. For example, Sri
Lanka launched a national vocational qualification
framework in 2004. Competency standards were
developed for 114 occupations at the certificate level.
Most institutions under the Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Skills Development based their training on these
By focusing efforts on understanding the relevance and
reliability of their qualifications frameworks, countries
can then target efforts to improve quality throughout
their TVET systems. An approach based on expert and
peer reviews with the support of regional bodies will be
necessary to achieve these synergies.
TERTIARY EDUCATION
Tertiary education is very diverse, ranging from short
courses, often with career or vocational focus, to
bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral programmes. Tertiary
education institutions vary widely within each country
in terms of size, cost, course offerings, procedures,
tradition, governance and quality. Differences between
countries are far more visible than they are for primary
and secondary education systems.
The proposed thematic indicator – the tertiary education
gross enrolment ratio – captures only a small part of the
diversity in access – and does not touch upon the two
other concepts of the target: affordability and quality.
Examining the target in its entirety is the objective of
this section.
ACCESS
Pre-entry, entry, progression and graduation in tertiary
education systems are distinct phases (Orr, 2016).
Ideally, different indicators should capture each of
these key transitions to better understand who is
eligible to apply for tertiary education, who is selected,
who enrols and who graduates (Belyakov et al., 2009)
(Table 12.2). Participation in higher education reflects
national policies on secondary education, admissions
norms, standardized entrance exams, costs and financial
aid, private provision, and university curricular design
(Clancey and Goastellec, 2007).
Pre-entry indicators. In some countries, secondary school
graduates sit a central tertiary education entrance
examination. In others, all young people who graduate
2016 • GLOBAL EDUCATION MONITORING REPORT 227